Fundamentals of DNA, RNA, and Genetic Technologies

What are Genes?

A gene is made up of a molecule of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid). This molecule is formed by the union of many smaller units called nucleotides. Each nucleotide consists of three smaller molecules:

• Deoxyribose
• Nitrogenous base
• Phosphoric acid

DNA nucleotides differ in the type of nitrogenous base. There are four types:

• Adenine (A)
• Cytosine (C)
• Thymine (T)
• Guanine (G)

The union of these nucleotides forms a long chain with alternating deoxyribose and phosphoric acid molecules forming the backbone, and nitrogenous bases extending from the deoxyribose.

The DNA Double Helix

DNA typically consists of two chains of nucleotides. This double chain is arranged in the form of a double helix.

Genetic Information and the Cell Cycle

The genetic information is generally the same in every cell of an organism, but the amount of DNA varies throughout the cell cycle.

Enzymes: Biological Catalysts

Enzymes are proteins that enable the performance of biochemical reactions occurring in living organisms.

From DNA to RNA: Genetic Message Transfer

DNA copies its genetic message into another molecule: RNA (ribonucleic acid). RNA leaves the nucleus and carries this information to the cytoplasm. There are three main kinds of RNA:

• Messenger RNA (mRNA)
• Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
• Transfer RNA (tRNA)

The Genetic Code

The genetic code refers to the relationship between the sequence of nitrogenous bases of DNA (or mRNA) and the sequence of amino acids that constitute a protein.

Triplets, Codons, and Codogens

Three consecutive nucleobases form a triplet, and each triplet encodes a specific amino acid. In DNA, these triplets are called codogens, while in mRNA, they are called codons.

Genetic Engineering: Manipulating Genetic Material

Genetic engineering is the set of techniques that allow for the manipulation of genetic material. It is applied in various fields, including:

• Biological research
• Criminal investigation
• Paternity testing
• Historical studies

Biotechnology: Harnessing Living Organisms

Biotechnology is a field of biology that uses living organisms or their products for human benefit.

Traditional Biotechnology

Traditional biotechnology includes practices such as:

• Bread making
• Production of alcoholic beverages
• Vaccines
• Antibiotics
• Industrial chemicals

Modern Biotechnology Applications

Current biotechnology applications include:

• Cloning
• Obtaining transgenic plants and animals
• Life sciences applications (e.g., obtaining human insulin)
• Gene therapy