Fundamentals of DNA, Genetic Concepts, and Biotechnology

DNA: The Molecule of Life

DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid) is the biomolecule responsible for carrying genetic information. A core component of chromosomes and found within the nuclei of eukaryotic cells, DNA belongs to the nucleic acid family. DNA is formed from nucleotides, each composed of a monosaccharide, a phosphoric acid, and a nucleobase. DNA consists of four types of nucleotides: adenine (A), thymine (T), cytosine (C), and guanine (G). DNA comprises two chains of nucleotides coiled together, forming the double helix. Adenine pairs with thymine, and cytosine pairs with guanine. The sequence refers to the order in which nucleotides are arranged. DNA duplication or replication is the process where a cell makes an exact copy of its DNA to share the same genetic information between its two daughter cells.

Key Genetic Terms

Gene: A molecular unit of heredity.

Chromosome: A rod-shaped structure composed of DNA, containing multiple genes.

Genome: The complete set of genes of an individual.

Amino acids: The smaller molecules that form proteins.

RNA (Ribonucleic Acid): A single-stranded molecule containing a complementary sequence of bases to DNA, where thymine is replaced by uracil.

Genetic code: A set of rules relating the nucleotide sequence of DNA to the amino acid sequence of a protein.

Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering

Enzymes: Proteins that control specific chemical reactions in living organisms.

Biotechnology: Technology using living organisms or their components (e.g., injecting human insulin DNA into bacteria to produce insulin). A bacterium with human DNA is a genetically modified organism (GMO).

Genetically Modified Organism (GMO): An organism whose genetic material has been altered through genetic engineering.

Recombinant DNA technology: Techniques to isolate, combine, and copy DNA sequences.

Human Genome: The complete series of genes in a species, encompassing all its chromosomes.

DNA Analysis and Applications

DNA Analysis: Techniques for identifying individuals through DNA, useful in forensics, paternity testing, and identifying human remains from samples like blood, hair, skin, or sperm.

Thermocycler: An apparatus used for DNA amplification (PCR).

Biotech Drugs and Therapies

Biotech drugs or therapeutic compounds: Examples include human insulin, growth hormone, factor VIII, hepatitis A and B vaccines, and antibiotics.

Genetic Modification and Cloning

Transgenic plant: A plant whose genome has been modified by inserting or modifying genes to introduce new traits.

Cloning: The process of producing genetically identical cells or individuals called clones.

Types of Cloning

Reproductive Cloning: Obtaining embryos by cloning mammals from adult cells.

Therapeutic Cloning: Producing embryonic stem cells for therapeutic purposes.

Stem cell: A cell capable of dividing indefinitely and giving rise to one or more tissue types.

Genetic Information

Genetic information defines the characteristics of each individual. The only difference between individuals lies in the order or sequence of nucleotides in their DNA molecules.