Fundamental Concepts in Science

Fundamental Scientific Concepts

Biological Foundations

Cells and Life Functions

Cells are the basic structural, functional, and biological units of all known organisms. They are composed of organic and inorganic compounds.

The vital functions of living beings include:

• Nutrition: The process of obtaining and processing nutrients.
• Reproduction: The biological process by which new individual organisms are produced from their parents, ensuring the survival of the species.
• Relation: How living beings communicate and interact with their environment and each other, often involving the nervous system.

Organism Classification

The five biological kingdoms are:

• Monera
• Protoctists
• Fungi
• Plants
• Animals

Animal classification is used to sort and identify characteristics. Animals are broadly classified into:

• Vertebrates: Animals with a backbone. Examples include fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals.
• Invertebrates: Animals without a backbone. Examples include Porifera (sponges), cnidarians (jellyfish), molluscs, annelids (worms), echinoderms (starfish), and arthropods (insects, spiders).

Binomial Nomenclature: A formal system of naming species, using two parts: the genus and the species.

Plant Anatomy

The main parts of a plant are the root, stem, and leaf.

Reproduction Types

• Oviparous animals: Reproduce sexually and lay eggs.
• Viviparous animals: Reproduce sexually, giving birth to live, well-developed offspring.

Cellular Structure & Nutrition

• Prokaryotes: Cells that lack a nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles.
• Autotrophs: Organisms capable of producing their own organic matter from inorganic substances.

Earth Systems

Layers of Our Planet

The Earth's exterior layers are:

• The atmosphere: The layer of gases surrounding our planet, including the troposphere, stratosphere, and ionosphere.
• The hydrosphere: The total mass of water that forms part of the Earth's surface.
• The lithosphere: The solid, outermost layer of rock on Earth.

The Water Cycle

The water cycle describes the continuous movement of water on, above, and below the surface of the Earth. Its key stages include:

• Evaporation
• Transpiration
• Condensation
• Precipitation

Chemistry & Matter

Understanding Matter

Matter is anything that has mass and occupies space. It exists in different states of matter:

• Solid
• Liquid
• Gaseous

Types of Mixtures

Mixtures are combinations of two or more substances that are not chemically bonded.

• Heterogeneous mixtures: Substances are visibly different at first sight.
• Homogeneous mixtures: Substances are not visibly different at first glance. A solution is a homogeneous mixture composed of two or more pure substances found in varying amounts, which can be separated by physical purification procedures.

Environmental Concepts

Water Treatment & Pollution

Differences between Drinking Water Purification and Wastewater Depuration:

• Drinking water purification: Eliminates all impurities and pathogenic microorganisms to make water safe for consumption.
• Wastewater depuration: Treats urban sewage in treatment plants to allow its reuse.

Water pollution can originate from various sources:

• Domestic (Black Water): From households, rich in organic matter and microorganisms.
• Agricultural (Groundwater): From the use of fertilizers, herbicides, and pesticides.
• Industrial: From industries, often containing heavy metals like lead or mercury.

Planetary Order

The planets in our solar system, in order from the Sun, are: Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, and Pluto (considered a dwarf planet).