French Revolution: Robespierre, Napoleon, and the Rise of Nationalism

Robespierre and the Reign of Terror

Believing that the revolution was in danger, the radical revolutionaries, or Jacobins, used this support to increase their powers. The Jacobin leader, Maximilien Robespierre, assumed all powers and established a dictatorship. The danger of foreign invasion and the internal threat from French opponents of the revolution led to the Reign of Terror (1793-1794), a ten-month period of violent repression. A special tribunal, the Committee of Public Safety, was established by Georges Danton and Robespierre. They tried people who were suspected of opposing the Republic, even without proof, sentencing them to death by the guillotine, a famous symbol of the French Revolution. Around 50,000 people were executed. Robespierre eventually lost support, and he and his followers were arrested and executed by guillotine.

Napoleon Bonaparte

In 1799, Napoleon became First Consul, obtaining the powers of a dictator. He later became Consul for Life. He consolidated changes of the revolutionary period: the Napoleonic Code prohibited certain privileges, allowed freedom of religion, and simplified the range of laws from before the revolution. The Concordat of 1801 maintained state control over the Church, and confiscated church lands were not returned. In 1804, he proclaimed himself Emperor of the French. He was defeated by the British at sea, his main enemy, but won many wars against the Austrians, Prussians, and others. Napoleon tried to invade Russia and suffered terrible losses. Britain, Prussia, Russia, and Austria defeated him in 1813. Napoleon abdicated in 1814 and went into exile. He returned to power for one hundred days but was defeated and deported to Saint Helena Island, where he died in 1821.

The Conservative Order

From 1815, European powers attempted to create a new Conservative Order, based on order and obedience to authority. Its main characteristics were:

• Monarchy: They believed that peace was only possible if a monarch headed each country.
• Internationalism: Great powers could intervene in another country if a legitimate monarchy was in danger.
• Congresses: Regular contact between the great powers was seen as a way to resolve international problems.

The Holy Alliance was formed by Prussia, Russia, and Austria to combat liberalism and revolution.

Liberalism

According to liberalism, the powers of a monarch needed to be restricted by a constitution that respected the sovereignty of the people and guaranteed individual liberties.

Nationalism

National identities grew in many parts of Europe in response to the Napoleonic invasion. After 1815, political boundaries did not usually reflect people's language and culture. There were national movements in states like the Ottoman and Austrian Empires.

Liberty Leading the People

Liberty Leading the People by Eugene Delacroix is a representation of the Revolution of 1830 in Paris.

Revolutions Between 1820 and 1830

There were revolutions in Spain, Greece, France, Belgium, and Poland between 1820 and 1830.