The French Revolution: Phases, Thinkers, and Historical Impact

The French Revolution: Key Phases (1789–1815)

First Phase: Moderate Phase (1789–1791)

• Meeting of the Estate General.
• Fall of the Bastille.

Second Phase: Radical Phase (1792–1794)

• Execution of Louis XVI.
• Rise of Maximilien Robespierre.
• The Reign of Terror.
• The National Convention: This body, full of radicals, pursued a Republic, breaking away from the old ways (Monarchy) and separating from the Church.

Third Phase: Conservative Phase (1795–1799)

• Period of reaction against the violence of the revolution.
• Establishment of the Directory.
• The Directory structure included:
  • Legislative branch: Council of 500 and Council of Ancients.
  • Executive branch: A five-person Directory.

Fourth Phase: Napoleonic Phase (1799–1815)

• Rise of Napoleon Bonaparte: Transition from Dictator to Emperor.
• France builds a vast empire across Europe.
• Collapse of Napoleon's Empire.
• Napoleon crowned himself Emperor. He fought major battles against coalitions including Vienna (Austria), Russia, and Prussia. Following his defeat, he was exiled, briefly returned (The Hundred Days), and was ultimately exiled again. He died, officially of cancer, though poisoning is often speculated.
• Napoleon sought to restore order, creating the Code Napoleon (French Civil Code), and his campaign discovered the Rosetta Stone.

Foundational Ideas of the Enlightenment

Freedom of Speech

Voltaire wrote extensively on freedom of speech. He is famously associated with the quote: "I may not agree with what you say, but I will defend to the death your right to say it."

Natural Rights

John Locke argued for the inherent rights of "life, liberty, and property." He asserted that these rights belonged to all men and were inalienable.

Freedom of Religion

John Locke stated that the government lacked any authority over an individual's conscience, thereby granting people a natural right to practice their desired religion.

Women's Rights

Mary Wollstonecraft's A Vindication of the Rights of Woman was one of the first major works advocating for women's equality and rights.

Historical Context and Key Documents

The Rosetta Stone

Found during the Napoleonic Phase, the Rosetta Stone was crucial for deciphering Egyptian hieroglyphics, as it contains the same decree written in three scripts: Greek, hieroglyphics, and demotic.

Marie-Antoinette of Austria

She was the wife of Louis XVI and Queen of France during the revolution.

Key Enlightenment Texts

• Leviathan by Thomas Hobbes: Hobbes argued that life without government would be "nasty, brutish, and short." He suggested a Social Contract where people surrender certain rights to a ruler in exchange for protection and order.
• The Spirit of Laws by Montesquieu: Montesquieu advocated for the separation of powers in government (legislative, executive, judicial) to create checks and balances against a single leader or legislature, thereby protecting individual rights.
• Two Treatises of Government by John Locke: Locke asserted that man possesses the natural rights of life, liberty, and property, and has the right to rebel against a ruler who denies these fundamental rights.
• Candide by Voltaire: This work describes a man’s disillusionment with a society that is unfair to the common man. It ridicules religion, armies, and governments for abusing the populace.

Political Participation and the Social Contract

• During certain periods, adult males could be elected, vote, and work for the government.
• Social Contract Theory: This theory posits that society gives up certain individual rights to the government in exchange for protection and societal benefits.