The French Revolution: Directory, Consulate, and Napoleonic Empire

Stabilization of the Revolution: The Directory (1794-1799)

After Thermidor, the Convention imposed a moderate republican regime, dismantling the Jacobean structure with the drafting of the Constitution of 1795. This constitution attempted to maintain equilibrium between the powers:

• The executive power resided in a Directory of five members.
• Two legislative assemblies: the Council of Five Hundred and the Council of Elders.
• The judiciary acted as guarantor of the constitution.

Census suffrage was reintroduced, and political life began to be controlled by the wealthy. The Directory faced two major enemies: the Monarchists, who conspired against the revolutionary power, and radical revolutionaries.

The Consulate (1799): The Rise of Napoleon

The 1797 elections gave a majority to members of the Monarchists, while conspiracies and coup attempts were happening. The Second Coalition of European countries, unwilling to face the revolution, returned to France. Some leaders supported Napoleon Bonaparte, who carried out a coup on 9 November (Brumaire) of 1799, overthrowing the Directory. Then, the Consulate was established, handing the task of government to Napoleon. The scheme was built around the new constitution.

The Napoleonic Empire

Napoleon created a European empire under French supremacy with an expansionist policy that led to continual wars. He created a national army and patriotic fervor, which led to many victories, such as the Battle of Marengo (1800), Austerlitz (1805), and Jena (1806). Napoleon attempted to articulate a continental empire and isolate Britain through a blockade. French rule over European nations placed people very close to the front of the European governments. In Spain, he took advantage of the Bourbon monarchy's crisis and placed his brother, Joseph Bonaparte, on the throne.

Later, the Napoleonic Empire fell into crisis for various reasons:

• Nationalist and liberal ideas, which sought to put their governments into practice.
• The military dominance of Europe forced the French company into a constant war effort.
• The military situation was complicated by the multitude of fronts; the campaign against Russia was a catastrophe for Napoleon.

After being defeated at Leipzig in 1813, Napoleon abdicated in 1814 and was replaced by Louis XVIII. Napoleon escaped and, between March and June, briefly regained power in France before being finally defeated at Waterloo. He died in 1821.