Foundations of Western Philosophy

Source Philosophy

Philosophy emerged from the need to replace mythological explanations of reality and nature with rational ones, marking the transition from myth to logos. It arose around the 8th century BC, following the introduction of alphabetic writing. Philosophy is inseparable from concepts; dialectical thought is its essence.

Presocratics

Initiating discussion on the principle (arche) or the principles of all things. The arche is that from which all things are formed, into which they become, and from which they retain their substance even regardless of changes.

• Tales: water
• Anaximander: Apeiron
• Anaximenes: air

Pythagorean School

A philosophical school developed in the city of Croton, south of Magna Graecia. Named after its founder, Pythagoras. They studied mathematics and noted that its principles were the principles of all things. Numbers are the elements of all things; reality has a mathematical structure.

Heraclitus and Parmenides

• Heraclitus: All things are one, but reality is a unity of opposites that continuously oppose each other. This opposition is harmony. The arche is fire. Reality is in constant change and movement.
• Parmenides: Contrasts the Way of Truth with the Way of Opinion. The Way of Truth: That which is, is; that which is not, is not. Being is unchangeable, remains at rest, and change is an illusion. The Way of Opinion: Deals with appearances and what seems to be, which is not the path to truth.

Plato

Influence of Socrates

• Interest in ethical and political issues.
• Conception of knowledge of the universal.
• Method of philosophizing through dialogue.

How the Theory of Ideas Emerges

Plato sought to restore the value of wisdom, which he felt was lost with the Sophists. He developed a new conception: universal knowledge is true knowledge, and knowing the truth is discovering the essence of things.

Definition of Idea (Form)

• They are truly real in themselves.
• They are separate from sensible things.
• They constitute the essence of things.
• They have a formal, non-material, non-sensible, and intelligible nature.
• As non-material, they do not possess sensory qualities that differentiate one individual from others.

Hierarchy of Ideas

1. Ideas that are lowest, corresponding to sensible things (e.g., water, hair).
2. Above these are the Ideas of mathematical entities (e.g., equality, inequality).
3. Higher still are Ideas like Unity, Beauty, etc.
4. At the highest level is the Idea of the Good.