Foundations of Psychology: History, Methods, and Ethics

Chapter I — Introduction to Psychology

Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes; it includes not only what people do but also their biological activities, feelings, perceptions, memory, reasoning, and thoughts.

Where Psychologists Work

Psychologists are employed in various settings. Although the major sites are private practice and universities, many are found in hospitals, clinics, community mental health centers, and counseling centers.

Historical Foundations

Wilhelm Wundt established the foundations of psychology in Germany in 1879.

Early Perspectives

The first perspectives of psychology were structuralism, functionalism, and Gestalt theory.

Emphasis on Prevention and Diversity

Psychology is increasingly specializing in prevention and treatment; it is also becoming more engaged with public interests and taking into account more fully the growing diversity of the population.

Scientific Method in Psychology

The scientific method is the approach psychologists use to understand behavior. It consists of three steps:

1. Identify questions of interest,
2. Propose an explanation, and
3. Conduct research to support or refute the explanation.

Research Methods

Researchers use several methods to study behavior and test hypotheses. These include:

• Desk research: Desk research draws on existing records, such as old newspapers or other documents, to test a hypothesis.
• Naturalistic observation: In naturalistic observation, the researcher acts primarily as an observer, without changing a situation that occurs naturally.
• Survey research: In survey research, people are asked a series of questions about their behavior, thoughts, or attitudes.
• Case study: The case study is an in-depth interview and examination of a person or group.

Experimental Design

In a formal experiment, researchers investigate the relationship between variables by deliberately changing (experimental manipulation) one of them and observing the changes produced in another variable. In an experiment, at least two groups should be compared to assess cause-and-effect relationships.

Independent variable: The variable manipulated is the independent variable. Dependent variable: The variable that is measured and expected to change as a result of manipulation of the independent variable is called the dependent variable.

Ethics and Participant Sampling

One of the basic ethical principles that psychologists follow is that of informed consent. Participants must be informed prior to their participation about the basic design of the experiment and the expected benefits and risks of their participation.

Although the use of university students has the advantage of immediate availability, there are also drawbacks. For example, students do not necessarily represent the population as a whole.

Biases and Controls

Experiments are subject to various threats, or biases. Experimenter bias is generated when an experimenter inadvertently transmits cues to participants about their expectations for behavior in a particular experimental condition. The expectations of the participants can also bias an experiment.

Among the tools used to reduce bias are placebos and double-blind procedures.