Foundational Philosophies: Ancient Greek and Medieval Thought

Saint Anselm of Canterbury: Faith and Reason

Saint Anselm of Canterbury, a pivotal figure in medieval thought, applied dialectic to theology. He carefully avoided subordinating faith to reason, instead aiming to develop the best possible theology by discovering the inherent reason within faith itself. Anselm famously argued that God is 'that than which nothing greater can be thought.' He posited that even an atheist, in denying God's existence, is capable of understanding this concept, implying God's necessary existence through what is known as the ontological argument.

Stoicism: Philosophy of Virtue and Resilience

A prominent Hellenistic school of philosophy, Stoicism derives its name from the Stoa Poikile (painted porch) in Athens, where its founders taught. Stoic philosophy is traditionally divided into three parts: Physics, Logic, and Ethics. In Ethics, Stoics argued that virtue is the sole good and is self-sufficient for happiness, independent of external circumstances. Virtue involves the elimination of disruptive passions (apatheia) and the acceptance of nature's order. This commitment to duty could, in extreme cases, lead to the acceptance of suicide rather than betraying one's principles. Notably, Stoics also advocated for the abolition of slavery, recognizing the inherent dignity of all individuals. The ideal Stoic sage is imperturbable, facing life's excesses and challenges without flinching.

Evolution of Stoicism: Key Periods and Thinkers

• Old Stoa (3rd-2nd Century BCE): Key figures include Zeno of Citium and Cleanthes of Assos.
• Middle Stoa (2nd-1st Century BCE): Represented by Panaetius and Posidonius, incorporating elements from Plato and Aristotle.
• New Stoa (1st-2nd Century CE): Focused on moral and religious thought, with prominent figures like Seneca and Marcus Aurelius.

Epicureanism: The Pursuit of Tranquil Pleasure

Epicureanism was a Hellenistic school of philosophy founded by Epicurus, whose followers gathered at 'The Garden' in Athens. Most disciples faithfully adhered to Epicurus's original teachings, and the school spread widely across the ancient world. Its perceived hedonism led to confrontations with Stoicism and later Christianity, earning it a negative reputation. While figures like Marx and Nietzsche later defended its principles, Epicureanism began to decline in the 3rd century CE and largely faded by the 4th century, with many of its texts reportedly destroyed by Christian authorities.

This philosophy advocates for a form of **hedonism**, arguing that the ultimate goal of human life is ataraxia (tranquility) and aponia (freedom from pain). This is achieved through spiritual, emotional, and lasting pleasure, fostering self-sufficiency from desires and affections, and eliminating fears and sorrows. In **Physics**, Epicureans supported Democritus's atomic theory, asserting that death is merely the disintegration of these atoms, thus removing the fear of an afterlife.

Scholasticism: Medieval Philosophy and Theology

Scholasticism was a dominant intellectual movement during the Middle Ages, characterized by its synthesis of philosophy and theology. It operated under the dual authority of **faith** and **reason**. Its primary concerns included the existence of God and the intricate relationship between philosophy and theology. Scholasticism is distinguished by its rigorous method, involving the careful reading of authoritative texts (lectio) and systematic discussion (disputatio), which developed as a crucial teaching tool. Its influence extended into the 20th century, giving rise to Neo-Scholasticism, which continued to engage with Catholic dogma.