Foundational Ethical Theories and Philosophical Anthropology

Ethical Theories and Moral Philosophies

Classical Ethical Theories: Socrates

Socrates laid foundational groundwork for Western ethical thought, emphasizing virtue and moral reasoning.

Eudaimonism: Aristotle's Pursuit of Flourishing

Aristotle championed Eudaimonism, a philosophy centered on achieving human flourishing or well-being. He believed that the ultimate goal of human life is to live well and do well, which leads to happiness.

Hedonism: The Pursuit of Pleasure

Derived from the Greek word "hedone" (pleasure), Hedonism posits that the primary goal of life is to obtain pleasure. Epicurus (Hellenistic period) argued that pleasure is a natural criterion for what is good and desirable, advocating for a life of moderate pleasures and tranquility.

Stoicism: Indifference to External Events

Originating from the Hellenistic period, the term Stoicism comes from the Greek word "stoa" (portico), referring to the painted porch where its founder, Zeno of Citium, taught. This school of thought advocates for indifference to external events, emphasizing that certain things are inevitable. A Stoic accepts the facts of life without being swayed by joy or sorrow, understanding that destiny is unavoidable.

Natural Law Theory (Jusnaturalism)

Natural Law Theory posits the existence of a natural law, which human law is derived from and limited by. Saint Thomas Aquinas, a prominent proponent, believed that three types of laws govern human conduct:

• Divine Law
• Natural Law
• Human Law

Emotivism: Emotions as Moral Drivers

Emotivism is an ethical theory suggesting that moral actions are primarily governed by emotions and feelings, rather than intellect or reason. David Hume (Scotland) argued that when someone acts, they are moved by emotion, with reason playing a secondary role.

Formalism (Deontology): Duty-Based Ethics

In Formalism, also known as Deontology, the morality of an action is determined by its adherence to rules or duties, rather than its consequences or content. Immanuel Kant argued that an action is truly good only if it is performed out of duty, not merely because it produces a good outcome.

Anthropology of Philosophy: Understanding Humanity

The term Anthropology of Philosophy, with its psychological implications, emerged as a discipline through Immanuel Kant. According to Kant, philosophy addresses three fundamental questions:

• What can I know?
• What should I do?
• What may I hope?

The second (moral) and third (metaphysical) questions can be summarized by Kant's overarching question: "What is man?" To answer this, one must establish an understanding of humanity. Comprehending "man" is the primary objective of philosophical inquiry. Kant's philosophical innovation, in summary, inspired a new perspective on subsequent philosophical thought. He argued that there isn't a pre-existing definition of "man," but rather that the definition of "man" is the very object of philosophical research.

20th Century Developments and Modern Questions

In the 20th century, this field emphasized the existence of concrete realities, starting from a critical perspective on the anthropology of philosophy. Jean-Paul Sartre famously stated that "man defines himself," meaning that humanity is not defined prior to its existence. Current questions in the anthropology of philosophy include:

• What is the future of humanity?
• Is human cloning legitimate?
• Do we have the right to dominate and exterminate nature?
• What are the limits of genetic research?
• What is humanity's position in the biosphere?

Utilitarianism: The Greatest Good for the Greatest Number

Utilitarianism is an ethical theory asserting that utility is the foundation of morality. An action is considered good if it is useful. Utilitarians evaluate actions based on their consequences, aiming to achieve the greatest good for the greatest number of people. John Stuart Mill was a key proponent of this principle.