Exploring Key Ethical Theories: Epicureanism, Utilitarianism, and Kantianism

1. The Epicurean Calculation of Pleasure and Pain

Epicureanism suggests that pleasure is the ultimate good and pain is evil. However, it emphasizes the importance of calculating pleasures and pains, choosing long-term pleasure over immediate gratification. This involves considering the potential consequences of actions. For example, a student facing an exam might choose to forgo weekend partying (avoiding short-term pleasure) to study and achieve the greater pleasure of a good grade. Similarly, enduring the short-term pain of a dental visit prevents the long-term pain of a lost tooth.

2. Self-Sufficiency as a Great Good in Epicureanism

Self-sufficiency, in Epicureanism, means minimizing dependence on external goods or people for happiness. It suggests finding contentment within oneself and one's own resources. This allows for greater control over one's happiness, as it doesn't rely on factors outside one's control. A person with little can find happiness in simple things, while someone with much might require more to achieve the same level of satisfaction.

3. Key Differences Between Epicureanism and Utilitarianism

Both Epicureanism and Utilitarianism are hedonistic theories, meaning they equate good with pleasure. However, Epicureanism focuses on individual pleasure, while Utilitarianism emphasizes maximizing pleasure for the greatest number of people.

4. Kant's Two Conditions for Moral Standards

Kant's moral philosophy rests on two conditions: Universality and treating people as ends in themselves. Universality means a moral law should apply to all rational beings. Treating people as ends in themselves means recognizing their inherent worth and avoiding using them merely as tools to achieve one's own goals.

5. Formulations of Kant's Categorical Imperative

1. Act only according to a maxim that you can simultaneously will to become universal law.
2. Treat humanity, whether in your own person or in the person of any other, always as an end and never merely as a means.

6. Autonomy vs. Heteronomy

Autonomy is self-governance according to principles one believes should apply to everyone. Heteronomy is acting based on external forces, like another's command or a law, rather than one's own beliefs. For example, helping with dishes out of a genuine desire to contribute is autonomous. Shooting an enemy prisoner solely because of a captain's orders is heteronomous.

7. Defining Virtue

Virtue is a disposition to do good, acquired through practice. The moral life aims at a goal, and achieving it requires cultivating virtuous habits and avoiding bad ones.

8. Types of Values (with Examples)

• Aesthetic: A beautiful jewel
• Economic: A luxury car
• Utility: A hammer
• Moral: Gandhi's nonviolent resistance

9. Types of Standards (with Examples)

• Religious: Thou shalt not kill
• Legal: Do not steal
• Social: Arrive to class on time
• Moral: Offer your seat to an elderly person

10. Characteristics of Moral Values

Moral values are integrated into our lives through conscious effort. They are personal, yet universal, meaning everyone should strive to embody them. Examples include solidarity, honesty, sincerity, loyalty, respect, fairness, and equality.

11. Differences Between Aesthetic and Moral Values

Access to aesthetic values can be limited by circumstance, while moral values are attainable through effort. Aesthetic values, like beauty, are subjective, while moral values are considered universal.

12. The Question of Morality's Foundation

The foundation of morality lies in finding justifications for our beliefs, providing reasons for why we hold certain values and principles.

13. Four Main Approaches to Grounding Morality

• Logos (Reason): Aristotle believed reason distinguishes humans as moral beings, enabling us to discern good from evil.
• Feelings: Hume argued that feelings of pleasure and displeasure form the basis of our moral judgments.
• Freedom: Kant believed freedom of choice is essential for morality, giving humans dignity and inherent worth.
• Argumentation (Dialogical Ethics): Apel suggested that engaging in reasoned argument implies accepting fundamental moral norms and recognizing the validity of others' perspectives.

14. Aristotle's Theory of the Mean (with Example)

Aristotle's theory of the mean posits that virtue lies in finding the middle ground between extremes. For example, ambition is the mean between conformity (deficiency) and arrogance (excess). The ideal mean can vary depending on the individual and context.

15. Individual and Social Hedonism

Individual hedonism, exemplified by Epicureanism, prioritizes personal pleasure. Social hedonism, as seen in Utilitarianism, aims to maximize happiness for the greatest number of people, recognizing the importance of social feelings and their contribution to overall well-being.