Evolution of European Monarchy, Art, and Religious Reform

Understanding the Cortes and Royal Authority

The Cortes were assemblies that participated in royal deliberations, often convened due to the crown's financial needs. Some monarchs ignored or ceased convoking them, leading to absolutism, a system where rulers centralized political power and territorial control.

Forms of Monarchy and Governance

• Authoritarian Monarchy: The initial step toward absolutism; Charles I is a primary example.
• Absolutism: Exemplified by Louis XIV, who centralized all three branches of power.
• Parliamentary Monarchy: Established in 17th-century England, where Parliament limited royal power and held legislative authority.

Historical Justifications of Power

• Catholic Kings: Expanded power across the peninsula to increase their authority.
• Absolute Kings: Claimed their authority was divinely appointed by God.
• Enlightened Despots: Justified their rule as servants of the state.

Regional Governance and Legal Protections

• Batzar Nagusiak: The primary function was to draft laws.
• Pase Foral: A mechanism used to protect the Batzar Nagusiak from royal laws deemed "antifuero" (against local charters).

Cultural and Intellectual Movements

The Renaissance (15th–16th Century)

Characterized by Humanism, balance, and the revival of Greek and Roman classical styles. Leonardo da Vinci is a key figure representing these ideals.

The Baroque Period

Defined by unbalanced, dramatic, and theatrical scenes with intense lighting. This style rejected Renaissance purity and harmony. Caravaggio is a notable representative.

The Enlightenment (1750–1800)

Also known as the Age of Light, this period promoted a scientific and rationalist approach to life, rejecting religious thinking as too static or superstitious. Joseph Wright is a key figure of this movement.

The Religious Revolution

Martin Luther initiated a religious revolution, challenging the Catholic Church. Charles V was compelled to fight these reformist ideas to prevent religious division within his territories.

Core Reformist Beliefs

• The Bible: Considered the only authority, to be written in local languages and interpreted personally.
• Relics: Reformers rejected the adoration of saints and religious relics.