Evolution of English from Middle to Modern: Orthography, Phonology, and the Great Vowel Shift

Features in Modern English: Orthography and Phonology

Orthography

Fixing and Reducing Spelling Variation

• Spelling Reform Debate: Spelling reform in accordance with pronunciation was proposed but not successful due to its radical nature (e.g., John Hart's 'An Orthographie').
• Regularization of Spelling: Regularization based on traditional and etymological grounds proved successful.
• Standardization by 1700: By 1700, English largely became standardized, making texts from that period onward relatively easy for modern readers.
• Reflection of Late 15th-Century Pronunciation: Modern orthography reflects the pronunciation of the late 15th century.
• Changes in Orthographic Conventions: Distinction of graphemes u/v and i/j emerged.
• Etymological Respellings: Scholars and writers aimed to elevate the status of English by aligning it with Latin and Greek, leading to etymological respellings. However, this created a discrepancy between spelling and pronunciation.

Problem: Etymological Respellings

The introduction of etymological respellings led to a disconnect between how words were spelled and pronounced. Examples include:

• Addition of silent letters based on French, Latin, or Greek roots (e.g., French doute & dette influencing the silent 'b' in 'doubt' and 'debt').
• Latinizations altering pronunciation (e.g., Middle English 'amonest' becoming Modern English 'admonish').
• Greek influence adding 'th' (e.g., 'throne,' 'theatre') and 'ph' (e.g., Middle English 'fantome' to Modern English 'phantom').
• Inclusion of initial 'h' (e.g., 'hotel,' 'hospital,' 'historical') and silent 'h' (e.g., 'hour,' 'honesty').

Non-Etymological Respellings

• Addition of 'l' (e.g., 'fault,' 'assault,' 'falcon,' 'could').
• 'S' in 'island' (Old Norse 'eyland' - Middle English 'yland' - Present-Day English 'island').
• 'H' in 'author' (influenced by Greek 'th').
• Use of '-e-' as a diacritic mark of length (e.g., 'caas' - 'case,' 'hus' - 'house').

Punctuation System

Transition from a rhetorical punctuation system in Middle English (aiding reading aloud) to a grammar-based system reflecting sentence structure.

Phonology

Stress System

• Germanic and Romance Influence: Contrast in stress between noun and verb forms (e.g., noun 'increase' vs. verb 'in'crease') and non-contrast (e.g., noun 'answer' vs. verb 'answer').

Vowels: The Great Vowel Shift (GVS)

• Middle English Legacy: Seven long vowel phonemes: /a:/, /e:/, /ɛ:/, /i:/, /o:/, /ɔ:/, /u:/.
• Impact of GVS: All vowels were affected, either raised one height or diphthongized.

Causes of the GVS

• Intralinguistic Accounts: Readjustment due to a lack of symmetry in the vocalic system (e.g., /i/ and /u/ being rare compared to /i:/ and /u:/).
• Sociolinguistic Explanations: Prestige associated with certain vowel changes.

Hypotheses about the GVS

1. Drag Chain Shift: Diphthongization of high vowels at the top of the vowel system dragged mid vowels upward.
2. Push Chain Shift: Gradual raising of vowels at the bottom of the vowel system pushed higher vowels upward.

Effects of the GVS

• Orthography was fixed before the completion of the GVS, resulting in inconsistencies between spelling and pronunciation.

Consonants

• Postvocalic /r/: Loss of postvocalic /r/ in most of England, South Africa, Australia, New Zealand, and parts of the USA. Retention in Scotland, Ireland, Canada, most of the US, and parts of England.
• Loss of Consonants in Clusters: Loss of 't' and 'd' in consonant clusters with 's' (e.g., 'castle,' 'hasten'), 'k' and 'g' followed by /n/ (e.g., 'know,' 'gnash'), and 'w' before initial 'r' (e.g., 'wreak,' 'wrong').