European Transformation: 15th-16th Century Social and Religious Shifts

Demographic and Economic Recovery

Major epidemics disappeared and the birth rate increased, leading to a population rise. Agricultural surplus was generated and sold. Improvements in shipping gave rise to trade. This increased the production of hand-made goods and manufacturing, and the growth of cities. Bills of exchange were created to facilitate trade and payments.

Rise of the Bourgeoisie

The economic power of the bourgeoisie did not come from the land. They made their money from capital, investing in profitable activities such as trade, manufacturing, and banking. The first capitalist companies emerged, laying the groundwork for merchant capitalism. Commercial exchanges represented a major source of wealth.

The Strengthening of the Monarchy

In the 15th century, monarchs took back the power that the feudal nobility had accumulated during the Middle Ages. Parliaments were dispensed with, leading to authoritarian monarchies. Monarchs created armies and established diplomatic ties with partner countries.

The Center of Creation

In medieval times, God was regarded as the center of the world (theocentrism). Humanists discovered the art and culture of Greek and Roman antiquity. They believed that human beings were at the center of nature (anthropocentrism).

Humanists and Academies

Petrarch was regarded as the first great humanist, and Erasmus of Rotterdam was the most influential and universal. Pico della Mirandola sought to synthesize classical, Jewish, and Christian culture. Sir Thomas More imagined an ideal society without social inequalities. Humanists created academies, where manuscripts were translated.

Spiritual Crisis of the Church

At the end of the Middle Ages, people began to question the attitudes of the Church. These included:

• The luxurious lifestyle of the high clergy
• The lack of culture and weakening of moral standards of the clergy
• The buying and selling of ecclesiastical positions
• The selling of papal bulls and indulgences

Lutheran Reformation

Martin Luther nailed a list of 95 theses against the Catholic faith. He condemned the wealth of the Church, denied the value of indulgences, and advocated a new religion based on:

• Salvation through faith
• Authority of the Bible, which should be read and interpreted by believers
• Universal priesthood

The Lutheran doctrine denied the sovereignty of the Pope, removed religious orders and the worship of images, and reduced the sacraments to two: baptism and the Eucharist.

Council of Trent

Catholic authorities began a reform of their own Church. The Council of Trent was created to correct the errors of the Church and establish the dogmas and rites required of Catholics. Jesuits played a key role in spreading the principles of the Counter-Reformation.

Inquisition Tribunal

To ensure that Protestants did not spread to Catholic countries, the Pope created the Roman Inquisition in 1542. It was an ecclesiastical court that persecuted and punished those who deviated from the dogmas of the Church. The Index Librorum Prohibitorum was also written. It was a list of books that were opposed to the Catholic faith and therefore banned.

Wars of Religion

Religious division caused confrontations and wars between Catholics and Protestants. Religious intolerance spread throughout Europe. In Catholic countries, Protestants were persecuted and their religious practices prevented.