European State Formation and Spanish Unification

Societal and Economic Shifts in Europe

Agriculture improved as technical innovations were made and new land was cultivated. There was a greater demand for food. Demographic growth was made possible by the increase in agricultural production. Economic growth created a rise in the activity of craftsmen.

The nobility came under greater royal control. But together with the clergy, they kept their highly privileged position in society. Many bankers and merchants became very wealthy through their commercial activities. They formed a powerful bourgeoisie that played a key role in many parts of Europe, and their sons and daughters married into noble families.

Feudal obligations weakened in Western Europe. Peasants were no longer serfs even though their lives were still difficult. There were many more artisans in European cities.

Strengthening of European Monarchies

European monarchs greatly strengthened their authority. Their kingdoms became more like modern states compared to the feudal monarchies of the Middle Ages. They imposed their authority in several ways:

• They unified the territories of their kingdoms.
• They established a bureaucracy of royal officials at their service.
• They created a taxation system which brought them a regular income.
• They set up a permanent army under the control of generals.
• They created a diplomatic service so that ambassadors represented them in other countries.

The Catholic Monarchs and Spain

The marriage of Isabel and Fernando II was celebrated in 1469. In this way the Crowns of Castilla and Aragon were united; however, each kingdom kept its own laws and institutions under this dynastic union.

Key Events in the Reign of the Catholic Monarchs

The Nasrid Kingdom of Granada was captured in 1492. There was territorial expansion in North Africa. In the Atlantic, Gonzalo de Córdoba, known as the Great Captain, successfully defeated the French in Italy.

Through skilful diplomacy, the Catholic Monarchs established matrimonial alliances with two other important monarchies: Austria and England.

In the Crown of Aragon, a Viceroy was the monarch's representative in each kingdom.

The Inquisition and Religious Unity

The Inquisition was introduced into Spain in 1478. The Spanish Inquisition tried heretics—people who didn't follow Christian morality or secretly practised another religion.

Expulsion of the Jews and Muslims

In 1492 a decree ordered all Jews to leave the country unless they became Christians.

For a few years after the fall of Granada in 1492, the Muslims were allowed to practise their religion. But through decrees in 1499 and 1502, the leading Cardinal Cisneros imposed Christianity on the Muslims who became known as Moriscos. They asserted royal authority.