European River Systems and Topography: Atlantic and Continental Features

Atlantic Rivers of Europe

The rivers on the Atlantic side of Europe are among the continent's mightiest. Precipitation occurs throughout the year, notably in the basins of the Vistula (Poland), Elbe (Germany), Rhine, Loire, and Seine (France), and Tagus (Spain). Spain's Atlantic rivers present two distinct profiles:

• Galician rivers are short, except for the Minho, and flow through wet areas.
• The remaining rivers are long with substantial flow at their mouths and numerous tributaries. Key rivers include the Duero, Tajo, Guadiana, and Guadalquivir.

Geographic Terms:

• Terrace: A leveled step on a mountainside, often used for cultivation.
• Torrent: A watercourse traversing a mountain slope only during the rainy season, characterized by large floods.
• Inland Sea: A depressed land area occupied by a saltwater lake.
• Climograph: Typically shows the coldest months (January and December) near 0°C and the warmest (July and August) around 23°C. A thermal amplitude of 23°C suggests a continental climate, with winters warmer than 0°C and summers consistently above 20°C. Precipitation varies, with some dry months.

European Topography

Continental Characteristics

Europe, the Earth's second smallest continent, is predominantly flat. Its topography is characterized by:

• Ancient Massifs and Plateaus

  Located in the northeast and east, these oldest mountains, including the Scandinavian Mountains and the Urals (the latter marking the border with Asia), are significantly eroded. In the central region, smaller mountain ranges and low-altitude plateaus with rounded shapes are found.

• Great Plains

  Extensive plains stretch across central and eastern Europe, from northern France to European Russia. Major plains include the Central Russian, Baltic, Atlantic, and Hungarian.

• Alpine Ranges

  These younger, high, and slightly eroded mountains are situated along the Mediterranean coast. Prominent ranges include the Pyrenees, Alps, Balkans, Carpathians, and the Caucasus, which some consider part of Asia.

The low altitude and predominance of smooth forms in European terrain facilitate human settlement and development activities.