European Revolutions and Unifications: 1820-1871

Revolution of 1820

These revolutions were concentrated in the Mediterranean and Russia. Army officials and secret societies played significant roles. Spain, Portugal, Naples, Piedmont, and Russia rose against absolute regimes. Monarchs initially accepted constitutions but later imposed restrictions.

Revolution of 1830

This wave affected all of Europe and placed liberals in power in many states. In France, Charles X was ousted, leading to the implementation of the constitutional monarchy under Louis-Philippe, Duke of Orleans. The revolutionary spirit spread to Belgium, which achieved independence from Holland, as well as to Spain, Portugal, and several Italian and German states. Liberal leaders limited rights and freedom, establishing censitary suffrage, which excluded commoners from politics and power.

The Revolution of 1848

These movements had greater participation and were more radical. They began in France, where Louis-Philippe was ousted, leading to the creation of the French Second Republic, establishing male suffrage constitutionally. Revolutions reached Prussia, Austria-Hungary, Switzerland, the German Confederation, and some Italian states.

Revolutionaries set up barricades in the streets with demands that terrified the bourgeoisie, who suppressed them and implanted a conservative liberalism.

The Consequences of the Revolutions

• Many Western European countries adopted liberalism and wrote constitutions, recognizing male suffrage.
• France maintained male suffrage. Serfdom was abolished, with the exception of Russia.

The bourgeoisie gained the most from the liberal revolutions and took control of conserving and defending public order. Commoners were defeated but did develop class consciousness and began to organize themselves to stand up to the bourgeoisie and the liberal state they helped to create.

Nationalism

Nationalist ideas supported processes of unification across Europe.

Unification of Italy

The Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia, led by Victor Emmanuel II and Prime Minister Cavour (central figures), won the trust of most national groups. Unification was carried out in several stages:

1. Victor Emmanuel II incorporated Lombardy into the kingdom.
2. Garibaldi conquered the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies in the south, leading an army in the Expedition of the Thousand.

After unification, the Kingdom of Italy was founded in 1861. Complete unity was achieved with the annexation of Venice in 1866 and the conquest of the Papal States in 1870. The new state adopted a liberal political system based on censitary suffrage.

Unification of Germany

Key figures were William I of Prussia and Chancellor Bismarck. Both aimed to unify Germany and exclude Austria.

The unification process occurred in two stages:

1. Prussia defeated Austria in the Battle of Sadowa (1866), allowing the northern German states to unify.
2. Prussia defeated France in the Battle of Sedan (1870), incorporating Alsace and Lorraine, thereby unifying the southern German states. The Second Reich began in 1871.

The new state created a constitution featuring universal male suffrage and a federal political system where states retained extensive power.

Independent Nationalism

This movement spread throughout countries ruled by a foreign power and often adopted liberalism. This resulted in:

• The majority of Spanish colonies becoming independent by 1825.
• Greece claiming independence from the Ottoman Empire in 1829.
• Belgium gaining independence from Holland in 1839.

However, Ireland, annexed by England in the 17th century, did not achieve independence.