European Relief Features and Spanish River Systems

Geographical Landforms and Natural Phenomena

• Stream: A watercourse that runs along a mountain slope in the rainy season only, which can suffer great floods.
• Inland Sea: A depressed area of land occupied by a lake that has salty characteristics due to the type of terrain.
• Terrace or balcony: This is a step created on a mountainside to flatten the land, allowing it to be reused for cultivation.
• Earthquake: Earthquakes are caused by the fracture and displacement of rocks inside the Earth.

The Relief Features of Europe

Europe is the second smallest continent on Earth, and its territory is mostly flat. The relief can be distinguished into three main categories: the mountains, ancient massifs, and plateaus.

Mountain Ranges and Ancient Massifs

The oldest mountains are located in the northeast and east of the continent; they are worn by erosion and characterized by their magnitude. Notable examples include the Scandinavian Mountains and the Ural Mountains, the latter of which mark the border with Asia. In the middle of the territory, there are small mountain ranges and low-altitude plateaus with rounded shapes.

The Great European Plains

The Great Plains extend through the center and east of the continent, stretching from northern France to European Russia. Major European plains include the Central Russian, Baltic, Atlantic, and Hungarian plains.

Alpine Ranges and High Peaks

The Alpine ranges are the newest mountains, located along the Mediterranean coast. These mountains are high and only slightly eroded. Highlights include the Pyrenees, the Alps, the Balkans, the Carpathians, and the Caucasus Mountains, which close the continent to the southeast (though some consider them part of Asia). The low altitude of the terrain and the prevalence of mild forms ensure that European relief does not hinder population settlement or development activities.

Hydrography and River Systems of Spain

Atlantic Basin Rivers

On the Atlantic side, there are two distinct cases:

• The Galician rivers are short (except for the Miño) but plentiful, as they run through wetlands.
• The remaining rivers are long and have a significant flow at the mouth thanks to numerous tributaries. These include the Duero, the Tagus, the Guadiana, and the Guadalquivir.

Mediterranean Basin Rivers

Rivers on the Mediterranean side are shorter than those on the Atlantic side and generally have a poor and uneven flow. They can grow in volume during the fall and spring while suffering from droughts in the summer. This applies to the Turia, Júcar, and Segura rivers. During a drought, the river flow decreases until it is nearly dry.

The Ebro River and Archipelagos

The exception to the Mediterranean rule is the Ebro, the longest and mightiest river in Spain. It flows through a major depression and empties into the Mediterranean, forming a large delta. Its flow depends on its many tributaries, many of which are born in the Pyrenees. Finally, in the archipelagos, there are no permanent rivers, only torrents.