European Power Struggles & Rise of WWI: A 20th Century Overview

The Rivalries Between the Major European Powers

France and Germany

In the 20th century, relations between France and Germany were strained due to French territorial claims over Alsace and Lorraine, lost in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870. Economic rivalries also fueled the tension. The growth of trade and financial relations between Great Britain and Germany sometimes sparked competition for new markets. Germany believed that to sustain its rapid industrial development, it needed to expand into new markets and establish a colonial empire.

British mistrust of Germany stemmed partly from the latter's naval policy, which aimed to create a powerful navy to rival Britain's.

The Formation of Blocs and the Arms Race

Starting in 1907, the major European powers aligned themselves into two opposing blocs: the Triple Alliance and the Triple Entente.

The Triple Alliance

The Triple Alliance, formed by Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy, was created by German Chancellor Bismarck in 1882 as a defensive pact. Its objectives were to establish a favorable balance of power in Europe for Germany and to prevent France, seeking revenge after its defeat in 1871, from becoming isolated. However, after Bismarck's resignation in 1890, Emperor Wilhelm II and his government shifted German foreign policy towards Weltpolitik. This policy was characterized by expansionist nationalism, militarism, and the development of a powerful navy.

The Triple Entente

The Triple Entente, comprising France, Russia, and Great Britain, was established in 1907 through a series of agreements. In 1893, France and Russia signed a military pact that included a commitment to mobilize their troops in case of an attack by a member of the Triple Alliance. Another step was the signing of the Entente Cordiale between Britain and France in 1904. Finally, in 1907, the Russian Empire joined the alliance, forming the Triple Entente.

The arms race further escalated the crisis. Between 1890 and 1914, the armies of all European powers, except Britain, doubled in size, both on land and sea. This period, known as the Armed Peace, marked a climax of tension.

Colonial Confrontations: Moroccan Crises

The early 20th century saw a resurgence of imperialist clashes, particularly in North Africa, especially Morocco. Germany, dissatisfied with the division of Africa at the Berlin Conference of 1884-1885, triggered the First Moroccan Crisis in 1905. Germany challenged the agreement between France and Britain to divide Moroccan territory between Spain and France, advocating for Morocco's independence. Kaiser Wilhelm II's landing in Tangier heightened tensions. The Algeciras Conference of 1906 aimed to avert war in Europe, resulting in an agreement to recognize Morocco's independence. The outcome favored France, strengthened by its alliance with Britain.

In 1911, another confrontation arose over Morocco, known as the Agadir Crisis. French troops intervened to support the Sultan, who was besieged by rebels in Fez.

The Balkan Crisis

From the mid-20th century, another point of friction in international politics was the so-called Eastern Question, centered on the Balkan region, occupied by the weakening Ottoman Empire. Various ethnic groups revolted against the Turks and gained independence. Between 1908 and 1913, three Balkan crises tested the complex alliance system of European states.

In 1908, the Austro-Hungarian Empire annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina. In 1912, the Balkan states, supported by Russia, formed the Balkan League to seize Ottoman territories between the Adriatic and Aegean Seas. Turkey was defeated, forced to recognize Albania's independence and cede the remaining territories. In 1913, disagreements among the league members over the spoils of war led to a new conflict between Bulgaria and Serbia. Bulgaria's defeat resulted in a further redrawing of territorial boundaries.