European History: Absolutism, Revolutions, and the Bourbon Dynasty

The Old Regime: Political and Social Foundations

The Old Regime refers to the political, economic, and social development in Europe situated between feudalism and the bourgeois revolutions.

Economic System of the Old Regime

Subsistence Agriculture

The primary economic activity was subsistence agriculture, characterized by:

• Low income.
• Self-sufficiency (autarky).
• Three-year crop rotation, including a fallow period.

This system often led to subsistence crises.

Commercial Expansion and Growth

Stability, achieved after conflicts like the Thirty Years' War and formalized by the Treaty of Utrecht, led to economic growth.

Population growth resulted in:

• Increased demand for products.
• Price increases.
• Increased production and profits.

Commercial Companies facilitated trade, moving Raw Materials to Manufacturing centers to produce Luxury Goods.

Political and Social Structure

Political System

The dominant political system was the Absolute Monarchy, often advised by councils or parliaments, and justified by the Divine Right of kings.

Unequal Society

Society was fundamentally unequal, divided into:

• Privileged Classes: The Nobility and the Clergy.
• Non-Privileged Classes: The Bourgeoisie, Working Classes, and Peasants.

This structure resulted in profound social inequality.

The Enlightenment and the English Revolutions

The Enlightenment Movement

The Enlightenment originated in England, influenced by key thinkers:

• John Locke: Advocated for the separation of powers.
• Isaac Newton: Developed the scientific method.

The failure of traditional Absolutism sometimes led to Enlightened Despotism, where monarchs adopted Enlightenment ideas while maintaining absolute power.

The English Civil War and Constitutional Monarchy

The Houses of Parliament

• House of Lords: Composed of nobles and clergy.
• House of Commons: Representing the bourgeoisie.

The conflict pitted Charles I (the monarch) against the House of Commons, led by Oliver Cromwell.

Charles I was tried and beheaded for treason. Oliver Cromwell subsequently took the place of the king, establishing the Commonwealth.

Restoration and the Glorious Revolution

After Cromwell's death in 1660, Charles II was offered the throne in 1679, conditional on signing the Habeas Corpus Act.

In 1689, William of Orange accepted the throne and signed the Declaration of Rights (the Bill of Rights), which established:

• The government chooses the First Minister.
• Separation of powers.
• Rights for free citizens.

Policy Reforms

Reforms aimed to streamline the state, including:

• Reform of school education.
• Modernization of agriculture.
• Development of manufactures (industries).
• Partial liberalization of production and trade.

The American Revolution

England maintained 13 colonies in North America. The settlers were dissatisfied due to several grievances:

• High fees and taxes.
• Trade monopolies imposed by Britain.
• Lack of representation in the British Parliament.

The settlers declared they would no longer obey English law. On July 4, 1776, delegates of the 13 colonies signed the Declaration of Independence.

The ensuing war was long. The Americans received crucial assistance from volunteers and allies in Europe. In 1783, Britain lost the decisive battle of Yorktown, leading to the establishment of the United States Constitution.

The Spanish War of Succession (1701–1714)

The Conflict and the Treaty of Utrecht

The arrival of the Spanish Bourbons led to the War of Succession, pitting Philip V (Duke of Anjou, supported primarily by Castile) against Archduke Charles of Austria (supported primarily by the Crown of Aragon).

In 1713, Archduke Charles inherited the crown of Austria, effectively ending his claim to the Spanish throne. This paved the way for the signing of the Treaty of Utrecht, which confirmed Philip V as King of Spain.

Spain ceded territories to other powers:

• Austria received Milan, Naples, Sardinia, and Flanders.
• Great Britain received Gibraltar and Minorca.

Catalan Resistance and Centralization

The Catalan resistance culminated on September 11, 1714, when Barcelona fell. Philip V subsequently punished Catalonia by imposing an Absolutist and Centralist System.

This new system concentrated power in the King and his advisors, bypassing the traditional courts. The territory was divided into provinces, each governed by a Captain General (holding military and administrative authority).

Catalan Economic Growth

Despite the political changes, Catalonia experienced significant economic growth between 1717 and 1797, coinciding with the rise of the United States.