European Geography and Climate: Relief, Geology, and Major Climate Zones

The Physical Geography of Europe

The environment in Europe is naturally favorable, characterized by temperate and maritime climates.

3.1 Geological History and Relief Formation

The European continent has a surface area of 10,500,000 km² with an average altitude of 300 meters. Geological history has profoundly shaped the current reliefs of Europe.

• The Precambrian shields form the core and basis of the continent.
• In the Paleozoic Era, the Caledonian Orogeny lifted the relief of Northwestern Atlantic Europe.
• The Hercynian Orogeny generated the central massifs of Europe.

During the Mesozoic Era, erosion acted upon these reliefs, forming erosion surfaces, while sediments accumulated in the Tethys Sea and continental basins. During the Tertiary Period, the collision between tectonic plates caused the Alpine Orogeny, which formed the Alpine arc while retouching the Hercynian massifs. Seismicity throughout the Alps and volcanism in Greece and Italy confirm that the collision between the plates has continued up to the present day. In the Quaternary Period, erosion acted on the Alpine chain and established the current topography.

Morphostructural and Major Physiographic Units

• The European Plain: Extends from England to the Urals, characterized by its low altitude (not exceeding 300 meters). It is formed by metamorphic rocks and later sediments, heavily marked by glaciation.
• Atlantic Caledonian Fronts: Norwegian and British relief composed of metamorphic materials.
• Hercynian Massifs: Include the Hesperian Massif, the French Massif Central, the Sudetenland, and the Ural Mountains.
• The Alpine Arc: The most rugged relief, formed by the folding of Mesozoic and metamorphic rocks.

3.2 Major Climate Types of Europe

Oceanic Climate

The Oceanic climate is found in the plains and coastal areas along the Atlantic facades. Temperatures are mild, with an average annual temperature of 10°C and a thermal oscillation of less than 15°C. Precipitation is abundant and regularly distributed throughout the year. Varieties of this climate include the typical Oceanic Climate and the Norwegian-Breton Oceanic Climate.

Continental Climate

With decreasing maritime influence, Continental climates are characterized by extreme temperatures. The average temperature of the coldest month is typically below 0°C. The thermal amplitude is high, often exceeding 20°C. Rainfall has a maximum peak in the summer. Frost-free months are few. Three varieties exist: the Russian type, the Baltic type, and the Danubian type.

Mediterranean Climate

In Southern Europe, Mediterranean climates are characterized by dry summers. Winters are mild and summers are hot. The average annual temperature is between 13°C and 18°C, and the annual temperature range is between 15°C and 20°C. Rainfall is irregular, often featuring frequent torrential rains and floods. Varieties in the Mediterranean domain include the maritime type, the continental type, and the humid type.