European Expansion, Renaissance, Reformation and Scientific Change

European World in the Fifteenth Century

The world known to Europeans in the fifteenth century.

Early 15th century: Europeans knew mainly Europe and the territories surrounding the Mediterranean and the Black Sea. They also knew of India, China and Japan thanks to Marco Polo.

Causes of the Discoveries

Causes of the discoveries

Several political, economic and technological factors motivated exploration and the search for new routes.

• New trade routes: After 1453 the Turks conquered Constantinople and took possession of the Byzantine Empire; Europeans sought new routes to Asia and to the Asian lands bordering the Atlantic Ocean.
• Navigation and cartography: Improved maps, the magnetic compass, the astrolabe and the quadrant were used to measure angles and determine latitude at sea.

New Types of Ships

New types of vessels, such as the caravel, were developed.

Discovery of America

Discovery of America.

Voyagers attempted to reach Asia by sailing across the Atlantic Ocean; this led to the discovery of the Americas.

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Demographic and Economic Changes

Stock recovery

Disease and poor harvests caused crises. Agriculture sometimes failed to produce enough, provoking revolts and wars. The Black Death of 1348 had a major impact.

Economic Growth

Economic growth

Commerce and prosperity increased. The population grew, and greater production of agricultural goods and crafts was needed.

Social Transformation

Social transformation

The privileged nobility and clergy often paid no taxes. The bourgeoisie gradually gained prominence, while peasants remained at the bottom of the social hierarchy.

The Birth of the Modern State

The birth of the modern state

Centralized administrations and professional bureaucracies were created. Monarchs strengthened and paid standing armies and increased taxation to support state institutions.

Great kingdoms emerged from numerous small states: France, England, Spain and Russia were among the major consolidated monarchies.

Renaissance, Humanism and Cultural Revival

The cultural and social revival in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries

The Renaissance and humanism were central to these transformations. Important features included:

• Concern for the human being: humanists focused on human experience and potential.
• Inspiration from classical antiquity: they drew on ancient philosophy and culture.
• Curiosity and the pursuit of wisdom: a desire to learn and to be well educated.

Main humanists included Erasmus of Rotterdam, Thomas More and Joan Lluís Vives.

The printing press, developed by Gutenberg around 1440, made books widely available and had enormous cultural importance.

Academies and study centers were meeting places where scholars developed and disseminated new ideas.

Leonardo da Vinci was a brilliant polymath who made many inventions and contributions to art and science.

Scientific Developments

Scientific development

Nicholas Copernicus proposed the heliocentric theory, which placed the Sun at the center of the universe. Michael Servetus studied blood circulation.

Religious Change and the Reformation

Religious change

Indulgences were documents that purported to grant forgiveness of sins for payment. Martin Luther criticized the sale of indulgences and other practices, initiating the Lutheran Reformation; he was later excommunicated.

Counter-Reformation and Catholic Reform

Against the reform

The Catholic Church launched an internal reform movement, the Counter-Reformation, to curb Protestant advances and to improve the Church's functioning. The Council of Trent (beginning in 1545) addressed these issues.

• 1. Confirmed Catholic doctrine.
• 2. Established seminaries to train clergy.
• 3. Created new institutions and methods to spread Catholic teaching.