European and American Revolutions: 18th and 19th Centuries

Unifications of Italy and Germany

The territory occupied by present-day Italy was divided into six independent states. Austria had annexed the two northern regions (Piedmont and Lombardy), which were the richest. Thus, unification seemed difficult. However, in 1859, Cavour, the leader of the Piedmontese government, started a war with Austria and achieved the annexation of Lombardy. Meanwhile, Garibaldi led several popular uprisings aimed at the unification of the territories of the peninsula. In 1861, the first Italian parliament appointed King Victor Emmanuel II of Italy. Only Veneto remained in Austrian hands, but it was abandoned in 1866. The unification was completed in 1870 after the Papal States were annexed, and Rome was named the capital of the new state.

The case of Germany was very similar. The territory occupied by present-day Germany was split into many small states (36) and suffered from the great rivalry between the two Germanic powers: Prussia and Austria.

Prussia led the unification process:

1. It established the Customs Union (leaving out Austria).
2. A liberal revolution created a parliament and offered the crown of Germany to the King of Prussia (who rejected it).
3. The Prussian chancellor, Otto von Bismarck, led wars against Austria and France to unite all the states under the Prussian king. In 1871, Kaiser Wilhelm II's German Empire (Reich) was proclaimed.

American Revolution and Independence

The inhabitants of the colonies of England knew the political process of questioning absolute monarchy. They knew the new ideas of equality, freedom, and tolerance that came from France, and they met with the metropolis.

The Revolutionary War began with the Battle of Lexington, which was followed by others such as Saratoga (1777) and Yorktown (1781). In 1783, with the Peace of Versailles, the United Kingdom recognized the independence of the United States. At first, the war was being won by the metropolis, with a well-organized army and many mercenaries (17,000). However, later, with the help of foreign powers (France, Spain, and Holland), the inhabitants of the colonies were able to win.

The most important date in this story was July 4, 1776, when delegates from the thirteen colonies met in Philadelphia and drafted the Declaration of Independence of the United States of America. George Washington was proclaimed the first president. The first written constitution in history (1787) established a republican form of government, separation of powers, and federal structure. This document ended with a Declaration of Rights, which guaranteed freedom of religion, press, expression, assembly, and the right to a fair trial. Although it has been amended, it is still the current Constitution.

European Revolutions of 1820, 1830, and 1848

The revolutions of 1820, 1830, and 1848 put a final end to the pretensions of the Holy Alliance. Attempts to restore the old regime were halted directly with armed uprisings that had the will to establish liberal regimes. In the first decades of the nineteenth century, insurrections triumphed in America among those who were seeking independence from Spain. New liberal republics replaced conservative regimes.

Revolutions of 1820

In Europe, several military uprisings initially failed to seal the Holy Alliance, except in Greece where, thanks to a strong national feeling and a seven-year war (1822-1829), they achieved independence from the Turkish Empire.

Revolutions of 1830

In several European countries, revolts triumphed, replacing absolute monarchies with constitutional regimes where the bourgeoisie imposed a census suffrage regime and limited public liberties. The main difference from the previous revolts is the broad popular support. Belgium achieved independence from Holland and established a liberal regime. In France, the absolute monarch Charles X was deposed, and Louis Philippe of Orleans was crowned under a new liberal regime. Political rights were expanded in England, and Spain introduced a liberal political system.

Revolutions of 1848

Universal suffrage (for all male citizens) was introduced, and the principle of popular sovereignty began to be defended. In France, a popular uprising proclaimed the republic and dethroned Louis Philippe of Orleans. In Austria, Chancellor Metternich resigned. Several nationalist uprisings occurred in Hungary, Bohemia, northern Italy, and the Germanic Confederation. The discontent of the population due to this policy of terror caused Robespierre and other Jacobin leaders to be executed in July 1794 (Thermidor was the name of the tenth month of the French Republican calendar).