European Alliances and Geopolitical Tensions Before 1914

Key European Alliances (1879-1914)

• 1879 – Dual Alliance

  Germany and Austria-Hungary formed this alliance to protect themselves from Russia.

• 1882 – Triple Alliance

  Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy formed this alliance to prevent Italy from aligning with Russia.

• 1894 – Franco-Russian Alliance

  Russia and France allied to protect against Germany and Austria-Hungary.

• 1904 – The Entente Cordiale

  An agreement between Britain and France, recognizing colonial possessions and reducing tensions.

• 1907 – The Anglo-Russian Entente

  An agreement between Britain and Russia regarding spheres of influence in Asia.

• 1907 – The Triple Entente

  Formed by the previous agreements, uniting France, Britain, and Russia.

• 1914 – The Triple Entente Agreement

  Members agreed not to sign for a separate peace during the impending conflict.

Major European Powers Before World War I

The early 20th century saw complex rivalries and ambitions among Europe's great powers:

• France and Britain: Colonial rivals, particularly in North Africa, though the Entente Cordiale aimed to resolve these.
• Russia: A vast colonial empire in Asia, posing a potential threat to Japan and Britain's interests.
• France: Deeply objected to Germany's annexation of Alsace-Lorraine in 1871, a persistent source of conflict.
• Germany: Rapidly building a large navy, which significantly strained relations with Britain.

Individual Power Profiles:

• Great Britain

  Possessed a vast empire, a rich industrial base, and a strong navy designed to protect against invasions. Ruled by King George V, the nation also faced internal challenges like unemployment.

• France

  Commanded the second-largest empire globally, with significant possessions in Africa. Maintained a large army of millions of soldiers and developed good transport links to its colonies. Led by Raymond Poincaré, France remained focused on the Alsace-Lorraine issue.

• Russia

  Geographically the biggest country, but largely poor and underdeveloped. Characterized by a diverse population with many different languages. Ruled by Tsar Nicholas II, the empire faced growing internal pressures from democratic ideas.

• Austria-Hungary

  A major Central Power empire, ruled by Emperor Franz Joseph I. Comprised 11 distinct nations, many of which sought independence, creating significant internal instability.

• Germany

  A relatively young but powerful country, boasting a formidable army and a rapidly expanding industrial sector. Ruled by Kaiser Wilhelm II, Germany also contended with worker discontent.

Austria-Hungary's Geopolitical Challenges and the Balkan Crisis

The Habsburg Empire, or Austria-Hungary, was a multi-ethnic state whose emperor commanded allegiance from diverse European peoples. While it had lost much of its former empire, the Habsburgs had historically dominated parts of Germany and Italy. Austria-Hungary had once been a strong power, ruling key areas of Northern Italy.

The alliance between Count Cavour and Napoleon III led to Austria-Hungary's defeat and the establishment of a northern Kingdom of Italy, which later unified into a new kingdom after Garibaldi's invasion. Italy subsequently became an empire.

In 1866, Otto von Bismarck led Prussia to war with Austria-Hungary over disputed territory, resulting in the superior Prussian domination of northern Germany. Austria-Hungary lost significant power and suffered a decisive defeat against Prussia. Consequently, Austria-Hungary was forced to offer Hungary equal status, forming the Dual Monarchy (Austria-Hungary) in 1867.

A persistent danger for Austria-Hungary was the potential for Russia to intervene and support demands for independence from its Slavic populations, a threat vividly demonstrated during the Bosnian Crisis of 1908.

The Bosnian Crisis and Balkan Wars:

Austria-Hungary had occupied the provinces of Bosnia and Herzegovina since 1878. In 1908, Russia and Austria-Hungary had a prior understanding that these provinces would eventually be incorporated into the Austro-Hungarian Empire. However, in October 1908, Austria-Hungary unilaterally annexed Bosnia, a move seen by Serbian nationalists as a direct challenge to their vision of a 'Greater Serbia'.

Russia supported Serbia, while Germany firmly backed Austria-Hungary, escalating tensions. Serbia, an independent country, harbored strong aspirations for a larger Slavic state.

In 1912, Serbia, Bulgaria, Montenegro, and Greece formed the Balkan League. The Ottoman Empire, already weakened and distracted by internal instability, became a target. In October 1912, the Balkan League attacked the Ottoman Turks, initiating the First Balkan War (1912-1913). Significant territorial changes occurred:

• Serbia doubled its size.
• The Ottoman Empire was largely expelled from Europe.
• Albania became an independent state.
• Bulgaria, an Austro-Hungarian ally, gained territory.

Russia sought to strengthen its alliance with Serbia, while Austria-Hungary and Germany supported Bulgaria, leading to Serbia losing some territorial gains in subsequent agreements. The primary consequence of these events was that Serbia became even more determined to unite all Serbs into a 'Greater Serbia,' a goal that directly challenged Austria-Hungary's territorial integrity and influence, setting the stage for future conflict.