Europe's Transformation: Society, Art, and Enlightenment (17th-18th Century)

17th and 18th Century Europe: Society, Politics, and Culture

Population Dynamics and Early Modern Crises

Europe's population faced stagnation in the 17th century due to significant challenges. Regions like Selge, Pisidia, experienced the devastating impact of the Bubonic Plague. Coupled with large-scale epidemics, famines, and widespread deaths, these crises severely impacted demographic growth. Despite periods of good harvests, the overall trend was one of vulnerability and decline.

Social Structure: Privileged and Non-Privileged

European society was rigidly stratified, characterized by a stark division between the Privileged and Non-Privileged estates. This unequal structure defined social and economic status:

• The Privileged Estates:
  • Nobility: Lived off incomes from their vast lands and held significant wealth. They were generally exempt from taxes.
  • Clergy: Divided into High Clergy and Low Clergy. They lived off rents and tithes, a tax applied to agricultural products. The Church owned substantial land and also enjoyed tax exemptions.
• The Non-Privileged Estates (The Third Estate): Comprised people of diverse socio-economic statuses who bore the brunt of taxation and lacked privileges.
  • Bourgeoisie: Included wealthy merchants, bankers, and large-scale manufacturers. They often sought to emulate the nobility and gain influence.
  • Popular Classes: Grouped manual workers in cities, artisans, and laborers.
  • Farmers: The largest demographic group, working the land, often owned by the nobility and clergy, in exchange for money or a share of the produce. They practiced subsistence agriculture and were heavily taxed.

The Ancien Régime: Politics and Economy

The Ancien Régime (Old Regime) was the prevailing political and social system in most of Europe before the French Revolution. It was characterized by:

• Absolute Monarchy: The king held absolute power, exercising supreme authority over the government, domestic, and foreign policy. The monarch was aided by the State Council and parliaments, though their power was limited.
• Medieval Agriculture: Agricultural practices largely retained medieval characteristics, including a three-field rotation with fallow. This led to subsistence agriculture, where farmers produced primarily for their own consumption, with little surplus.
• Economic Crises: Periods of poor harvests often led to subsistence crises, causing widespread famine and hardship.

Wars and Shifting Power Dynamics

The 17th century was marked by significant conflicts that reshaped the European political map:

• The Thirty Years' War (1618-1648): A devastating conflict between Catholics and Protestants that ended with the Peace of Westphalia. This treaty signified the rise of new powers and the decline of the Habsburg dominance.
• Treaty of Utrecht (1713): After another period of conflict (the War of the Spanish Succession), this treaty established a new balance of power in Europe through diplomacy, leading to increased production and trade in some regions.

Baroque Art and the Spanish Golden Age

The Baroque art movement, contrasting with the rationalism and classicism of the Renaissance, flourished in the 17th century. It emphasized drama, emotion, and grandeur, often serving to express the power of monarchs and the Church. The Palace of Versailles is a prime example of Baroque architectural splendor.

Spanish Baroque Architecture

Spanish Baroque architecture is distinguished by its extraordinary decorative exuberance, both inside and out. Key architects of this period include Alonso Cano, Fernando Casas y Novoa, and José Churriguera.

Baroque Sculpture

Sculpture continued the Renaissance tradition, primarily using wood and focusing on painted religious subjects. The realistic imagery achieved was often dramatic and emotionally charged.

The Golden Age of Spanish Painting

The 17th century is renowned as the Golden Age of Spanish Painting. Artists focused on light and color, creating masterpieces that captured the era's spirit.

• Bartolomé Esteban Murillo: Known for his religious paintings and depictions of children.
• Diego Velázquez: Worked at the court of Philip IV. His masterful technique of light and aerial perspective creates a sensation of light among figures and objects, giving his works a profound sense of realism and depth.

The Enlightenment: Reason and Reform in the 18th Century

The Enlightenment (or Illustration) was an intellectual movement that developed across Europe in the 18th century, challenging the foundations of the Ancien Régime. It advocated for reason, individualism, and skepticism.

Key Enlightenment Thinkers

• John Locke: Criticized absolutism and proposed a critical vision of governmental powers, advocating for natural rights and limited government.
• Isaac Newton: His scientific method, based on observation and verification of facts, profoundly influenced Enlightenment thought, promoting empirical inquiry.
• Montesquieu: Defended the separation of powers into legislative, executive, and judicial branches to prevent tyranny.
• Jean-Jacques Rousseau: Defined the social contract and championed the principle of national sovereignty, arguing that legitimate political authority comes from the consent of the governed.
• Voltaire: Advocated for religious tolerance, freedom of speech, and a fairer tax system, often criticizing the abuses of the Church and state.

Economic Thought: From Mercantilism to Liberalism

Economic policy in the 15th to 17th centuries was dominated by Mercantilism, which advocated for a country's wealth based on accumulating precious metals and maintaining a positive balance of trade. The Enlightenment, however, opposed absolutism and mercantilism, proposing a new doctrine: Liberalism, which emphasized free markets and individual economic freedom.