Europe's Transformation: From Rome to Modernity
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The End of the Roman Empire and the Dawn of the Middle Ages
In the year 476 CE, the **Western Roman Empire** came to an end. Its western territories fragmented into various Germanic kingdoms, while the eastern **Byzantine Empire** continued to thrive.
Key Developments in the Early Middle Ages
- Around the early seventh century, significant changes occurred in the **Arabian Peninsula**. **Muhammad** preached the new religion of **Islam**, which led to the formation of a great empire.
- A century later in Europe, **Charlemagne** established the **Carolingian Empire**, marking a period of renewed stability and cultural growth in Western Europe.
- The **Byzantine** and **Islamic civilizations** were urban, rich, and prosperous. In contrast, Western Europe's population was predominantly rural, and its society was less developed.
- From the ninth century, Europe was ravaged by the invasions of **Vikings**, **Magyars**, and **Saracens**.
The Rise of Feudalism and Medieval Society
- Kings were often unable to protect the entire population effectively. As a result, farmers sought the protection of nobles in exchange for becoming their serfs.
- This led to the introduction of **feudalism**. Medieval society was divided into three distinct classes: **nobles**, **clergy**, and **workers**, each with different rights and obligations.
- Society began to change significantly in the thirteenth century, as cities grew and new social groups emerged, such as **artisans** and **merchants**, who often escaped the direct control of feudal lords.
Religion and Art in the Middle Ages
- During the **Middle Ages**, religion was a profoundly important element of daily life and culture.
- For this reason, almost all surviving art from that time has a religious character. In Europe, two major artistic styles predominated: the **Romanesque** and the **Gothic**.
Transition to the Early Modern Age: The Fifteenth Century
The late fifteenth century witnessed a series of profound changes that marked the transition from the medieval to the **Early Modern era**.
Global Expansion and Economic Shifts
- The world known to Europeans became much larger thanks to new geographical discoveries and the opening of new shipping lanes.
- **Portugal** and **Castile** were the major protagonists of these voyages of exploration, leading to the formation of two great colonial empires.
- This was also a period of significant population growth and economic transformation across Europe.
- The **bourgeoisie** began to gain significant power, and many peasants were no longer bound as serfs.
Political Centralization and Cultural Renaissance
- The power of kings and central governments was reinforced at the expense of local authorities and the nobility. As a consequence, **authoritarian monarchies** emerged.
- The states of the **Catholic Monarchs** in Spain became one of the major European powers and a prime example of an authoritarian monarchy.
- The **Renaissance** brought about a very important cultural change with the development of a new current of thought, **humanism**, and remarkable scientific advancements.
- It also gave rise to a new artistic style, the **Renaissance**, which involved significant development in all arts.
Religious Upheaval: The Reformation
- One of the most momentous events of the **Early Modern Age** was the outbreak of the **Protestant Reformation**, which led to the breakdown of religious unity in Western Europe.