Europe's Transformation: From Rome to Modernity

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The End of the Roman Empire and the Dawn of the Middle Ages

In the year 476 CE, the **Western Roman Empire** came to an end. Its western territories fragmented into various Germanic kingdoms, while the eastern **Byzantine Empire** continued to thrive.

Key Developments in the Early Middle Ages

  • Around the early seventh century, significant changes occurred in the **Arabian Peninsula**. **Muhammad** preached the new religion of **Islam**, which led to the formation of a great empire.
  • A century later in Europe, **Charlemagne** established the **Carolingian Empire**, marking a period of renewed stability and cultural growth in Western Europe.
  • The **Byzantine** and **Islamic civilizations** were urban, rich, and prosperous. In contrast, Western Europe's population was predominantly rural, and its society was less developed.
  • From the ninth century, Europe was ravaged by the invasions of **Vikings**, **Magyars**, and **Saracens**.

The Rise of Feudalism and Medieval Society

  • Kings were often unable to protect the entire population effectively. As a result, farmers sought the protection of nobles in exchange for becoming their serfs.
  • This led to the introduction of **feudalism**. Medieval society was divided into three distinct classes: **nobles**, **clergy**, and **workers**, each with different rights and obligations.
  • Society began to change significantly in the thirteenth century, as cities grew and new social groups emerged, such as **artisans** and **merchants**, who often escaped the direct control of feudal lords.

Religion and Art in the Middle Ages

  • During the **Middle Ages**, religion was a profoundly important element of daily life and culture.
  • For this reason, almost all surviving art from that time has a religious character. In Europe, two major artistic styles predominated: the **Romanesque** and the **Gothic**.

Transition to the Early Modern Age: The Fifteenth Century

The late fifteenth century witnessed a series of profound changes that marked the transition from the medieval to the **Early Modern era**.

Global Expansion and Economic Shifts

  • The world known to Europeans became much larger thanks to new geographical discoveries and the opening of new shipping lanes.
  • **Portugal** and **Castile** were the major protagonists of these voyages of exploration, leading to the formation of two great colonial empires.
  • This was also a period of significant population growth and economic transformation across Europe.
  • The **bourgeoisie** began to gain significant power, and many peasants were no longer bound as serfs.

Political Centralization and Cultural Renaissance

  • The power of kings and central governments was reinforced at the expense of local authorities and the nobility. As a consequence, **authoritarian monarchies** emerged.
  • The states of the **Catholic Monarchs** in Spain became one of the major European powers and a prime example of an authoritarian monarchy.
  • The **Renaissance** brought about a very important cultural change with the development of a new current of thought, **humanism**, and remarkable scientific advancements.
  • It also gave rise to a new artistic style, the **Renaissance**, which involved significant development in all arts.

Religious Upheaval: The Reformation

  • One of the most momentous events of the **Early Modern Age** was the outbreak of the **Protestant Reformation**, which led to the breakdown of religious unity in Western Europe.

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