Europe's Transformation: From Old Regime to Liberal Revolutions

The Old Regime and the Enlightenment

Defining the Old Regime

The Old Regime refers to European societies of the Modern Age that had survived the medieval feudal era. These societies continued to maintain a model of life based on an agricultural economy of a noble type, an absolutist monarchy, and a society divided into estates.

Society was structured into estates, meaning one's social standing was determined by birth. The economy was primarily agricultural, subsistence-based, and of a noble type. Politically, craft guilds held influence, and kings commanded absolute power with no separation of powers, often justifying their rule as divinely ordained.

The Enlightenment's Vision

The Enlightenment was an intellectual and cultural movement of the eighteenth century that sought to dismantle the Old Regime in its economic, political, and social aspects. It was based on reason to end beliefs and superstitions. Key goals included the separation of governmental powers, limiting the king's absolute authority, establishing elections, and promoting trade and infrastructure.

Emergence of Parliamentary Systems

Early European Models

The first states to achieve a parliamentary regime were England (roughly 1649), the Netherlands (around 1660), and the United States (1776). Each achieved this through distinct processes:

• England: A civil war forced the king to be accountable to Parliament.
• Netherlands: Achieved a similar outcome.
• United States: Gained independence through war and established its first constitution.

Bourbon Reforms and Centralization

The Bourbons sought to unify and implement a centralized model, based on the French and Spanish examples, ensuring all regions had the same laws.

Catalonia's Economic Paradox

Catalonia lost its own institutions and adopted Castilian laws. Paradoxically, the Catalan economy grew more than in the rest of Spain, with increased trade and manufacturing.

Charles III's Modernization

Bourbon reforms under Charles III included:

• Establishing more uniform new taxes.
• Constructing extensive infrastructure.
• Promoting trade and education.
• Implementing reforestation efforts.
• Founding institutions like the Royal Academy of Language.

Liberalism and the Napoleonic Era

Moderate Liberalism's Stance

Moderate liberalism, in its initial phase, did not fundamentally challenge the king's authority, provided he signed the constitution. This contrasts with later, more radical forms of liberalism, such as that seen after Robespierre.

Napoleon's Enduring Impact

On the positive side, Napoleon introduced many reforms and advancements that ultimately contributed to the end of the Old Regime. On the negative side, the Napoleonic Wars were devastating, marked by widespread looting, violence, and destruction.

The Absolutist Restoration (1815)

Congress of Vienna's Objectives

The Absolutist Restoration was an attempt to reinstate the Old Regime following Napoleon's defeat, from 1815, notably at the Congress of Vienna. Its goal was to undo all of Napoleon's advancements. France returned to its original boundaries, and the three victorious continental European powers divided other territories, including Poland.

European Revolutions: 1820, 1830, 1848

Shared Causes, Varied Results

The revolutions that challenged absolutist regimes were those of 1820, 1830, and 1848. All three began similarly: an economic crisis triggered a revolt led by the bourgeoisie. However, the first two (1820 and 1830) ultimately failed, while the 1848 revolution eventually established a bourgeois government.