Europe After Napoleon: Restoration, Revolutions, Unification

The Consulate (1799-1804)

Napoleon staged a coup on 18 Brumaire, ending the Directory. He was initially supported mainly by the moderate bourgeoisie, but soon gained the support of all the French people, aiming to end revolts and achieve economic stability.

The Napoleonic Empire

By 1802, Napoleon consolidated power, becoming First Consul of France. During this time, France was fighting against the Coalitions, but now, with Napoleon leading his armies, it was unstoppable. This consolidation of power and popular support led him to crown himself emperor in 1804.

The Restoration Era

The victorious powers met in Vienna to restore Europe to its pre-French Revolution state (1814). Principles of the Congress of Vienna:

• End liberalism and national sovereignty: Holy Alliance Treaty.
• Return the kings to their thrones (legitimacy).
• Return the land France conquered.
• Balance of power.

Revolutionary Waves (1820-1848)

A period when the bourgeoisie sought to gain power across Europe. People did not support their new kings (especially after the Napoleonic wars). During 1820, 1830, and 1848, there were revolutions all across Europe. Where successful, they led to republics or constitutional monarchies; where they failed, they were suppressed by monarchs or the Holy Alliance. The revolutions of 1848 saw the emergence of democratic parties and workers uniting in support.

The Rise of Nationalism

A political ideology asserting that people belong to a nation, or country, based on shared culture, history, language, etc. Nationalism advocates for the right of every nation to have its own state. It differentiates people based on nationality, sometimes leading nations to consider themselves superior to others.

Italian Unification

Italy was composed of small kingdoms that were unified by nationalism, driven by figures like Cavour. This occurred under the reign of Victor Emmanuel II. While northern Italy was largely conquered, the south remained predominantly rural and peasant. To avoid conflict between the northern movement and Garibaldi's efforts in the south, Cavour and Garibaldi agreed to unite the regions, largely driven by the northern leadership. In 1870, Victor Emmanuel II conquered Rome, completing the unification, and was crowned king of a united Italy.