Europe After Napoleon: Restoration & Change

Post-Napoleonic Europe: The Restoration Era

After Napoleon was defeated in the War of Independence of Spain and ultimately in 1815, the Restoration period began. This marked a return to the political system of the Ancien Régime, known as absolutism.

The Quadruple Alliance (Russia, Prussia, Austria, and Great Britain) met at the Congress of Vienna (1814-1815). Key measures adopted included:

• The restoration of absolute monarchs to their thrones.
• A restructuring of the European map.
• An agreement among European monarchs to support any legitimate monarch facing threats.

This return to absolutism, however, provoked resistance and fueled revolutions driven by new ideas:

• Liberalism
• Nationalism
• Democracy

Key Ideologies of the 19th Century

Liberalism was an ideology primarily representing the wealthy bourgeoisie. It was generally divided into two groups:

• Moderates: Advocated for limited freedom of expression and limited male suffrage.
• Progressives: Supported greater liberty and fewer restrictions on freedom of expression.

Romanticism, a cultural and artistic movement that appeared in Europe during the first half of the 19th century, was often linked with liberalism. Romanticism sought creative freedom for the artist, respect for the individual, expression of feelings, and glorification of national history.

Nationalism defended the right of people to form independent nations based on shared identity. There were two main types:

• Unification Nationalism: Sought to unify fragmented territories into a single nation-state (e.g., Italy, Germany).
• Separatist Nationalism: Sought independence for a distinct group from a larger empire or state (e.g., Greece, Belgium).

Finally, the idea of Democracy arose, advocating for popular sovereignty and seeking to end social and economic inequalities.

Waves of Revolution (1820-1848)

The period saw several waves of revolution:

• 1820 Revolutions:
  • Liberal revolutions in Portugal (successful) and Spain (initially successful, but suppressed after three years).
  • A nationalist revolution in Greece, leading to independence from the Ottoman Turks (confirmed by the Treaty of Adrianople).
• 1830 Revolutions:
  • A liberal revolution in France, replacing Charles X with Louis Philippe of Orleans and establishing a constitutional monarchy.
  • A nationalist revolution in Belgium, leading to independence from the Netherlands.
• 1848 Revolutions: Known as the "Spring of Nations," these were widespread.
  • In France, a democratic revolution overthrew Louis Philippe and established the Second Republic. This revolution, though leading to the Second Empire under Napoleon III who maintained universal manhood suffrage, was the most significant in terms of lasting political change in this wave.
  • Revolutions also occurred across the German states, the Austrian Empire, and Italy, driven by liberal and nationalist aims, though most were ultimately suppressed.

National Unifications: Italy and Germany

The mid-19th century also witnessed the significant unifications of Italy and Germany.

• Italian Unification: Achieved primarily through the efforts of Count Camillo Cavour (Prime Minister of Piedmont-Sardinia) in the North, Giuseppe Garibaldi (military leader) in the South, and King Victor Emmanuel II. This resulted in a unified Kingdom of Italy under a parliamentary monarchy.
• German Unification: Led by Otto von Bismarck, the Prime Minister of Prussia, under King Wilhelm I. Key steps included the defeat of Austria in the Austro-Prussian War (Battle of Königgrätz/Sadowa, 1866), which expelled Austria from German affairs, and the defeat of France in the Franco-Prussian War (1870-1871). This culminated in the proclamation of the German Empire in 1871.