Europe's Age of Upheaval: Liberalism and Democracy, 1820-1848

European Liberal Revolutions: 1820-1848

The Revolutions of 1820 and 1830

During the Restoration period, Liberals often operated in secret societies, with the Masons being the largest and most influential group. These societies saw themselves as heirs to the ideals of the Enlightenment and the French Revolution, advocating for insurrection against absolutism.

The revolutionary wave between 1820 and 1824 saw initial victories in Spain, Portugal, Naples, and Piedmont, ushering in a brief liberal period. However, these movements were ultimately suffocated by absolutist forces. In Spain and the Italian states, this suppression involved the direct intervention of the Holy Alliance in 1823. Many Liberals were executed, while others were forced into exile.

In 1830, a second revolutionary wave began in France, leading to the overthrow of the Bourbon monarchy and the establishment of a constitutional monarchy under Louis Philippe of Orleans. This revolution's influence extended to Belgium, contributing to its independence. By the late 1830s, absolutism was receding in Western Europe, replaced by a moderate liberalism. This shift consolidated the dominance of the grande bourgeoisie and an aristocracy that marginalized the petty bourgeoisie and working classes. Moderate Liberals typically defended a vote based on census (property qualifications), and labor associations were often prohibited.

The 1848 Revolutions: A Social Democratic Experience

A new wave of revolutions in 1848 definitively ended the Restoration era. In Eastern Europe, with the exception of Russia, these movements led to the widespread abolition of feudalism. In Western Europe, new democratic ideals gained prominence, including popular sovereignty and universal male suffrage.

The revolution in Paris began when Louis Philippe of Orleans restricted public freedoms. It culminated in the assault on the Royal Palace, the king's flight, and the proclamation of the Second Republic. A provisional government, comprising republicans, socialists, and radicals, pushed for significant political and social reforms, notably the creation of the National Workshops. However, subsequent elections led to the formation of a new moderate government, which promptly closed the National Workshops. This period saw the rise of a strong government aiming to secure a liberal regime against popular aspirations. In December, Louis-Napoleon Bonaparte (later Napoleon III) proclaimed the Second Empire.

The revolutionary fervor of 1848 spread across Europe. For instance, the Austrian Empire transformed into a constitutional monarchy, and serfdom was abolished throughout its territories.