Europe's 19th Century Transformation: Wars, Workers' Rights, and Ideological Shifts

The Austro-Prussian War (Second Stage)

During this period, Franz Joseph I of Austria (reigned 1848-1916) was the monarch. He presided over events that would eventually lead to major European conflicts, even in his old age. He was married to Empress Elisabeth of Bavaria. In 1866, Otto von Bismarck challenged the Austrians, leading to the Austro-Prussian War.

The Franco-Prussian War (Third Stage)

Bismarck needed a pretext for war with France. The immediate reason was the succession to the Spanish throne following the expulsion of Queen Isabella II. Germany had a candidate, but this was rejected by Napoleon III of France. Napoleon III sent a dispatch to King Wilhelm I at Ems, but this message was intercepted by Bismarck, who famously edited the "Ems Dispatch" to provoke France into declaring war.

The Labor Movement

The rise of the Industrial Revolution and the influx of rural labor into urban centers fueled the labor movement. By the end of the 18th century, a significant rural exodus occurred, leading to the disappearance of common lands. In urban areas, industrial work was largely unregulated, with workers enduring:

• 14 to 16 hours of daily work
• Children as young as 5-6 years old in the workforce
• No holidays or unemployment benefits

Repressive laws were common, including imprisonment for destroying machines and the death penalty for strikers.

Utopian Socialism

Utopian Socialism was advocated by thinkers like Count Saint-Simon, Charles Fourier (French), and Robert Owen (English), who were also entrepreneurs. Fourier proposed phalansteries, cooperative communities designed to help workers. These thinkers aimed to improve workers' conditions, believing this would lead to greater profit and production. However, employers (the bourgeoisie) often dictated working conditions, leading to systemic failure and exploitation.

Scientific Socialism

Scientific Socialism emerged in the 19th century, with its main authors being Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels from Germany. Their primary aim was to dismantle the bourgeois state, which they argued owned the means of production. They believed that when the workforce was exploited or unemployed, strikes were a necessary tool for change and revolution.

The Revolution of 1848

The Revolution of 1848 saw the practical application of revolutionary ideals. The first wave involved an alliance between socialists and the bourgeoisie. The workers' movement sought to achieve universal male suffrage and laws that would benefit laborers. However, the bourgeoisie ultimately betrayed the socialist movement.

The 1860s and the International Workingmen's Association (IWA)

By the 1860s, the workers' movement had not yet fully triumphed. A universal exhibition in London served as a platform for international recognition and discussion. Following this, the International Workingmen's Association (IWA) was formed, which largely leaned towards socialist principles.

Anarchism

The main goal of Anarchism was to dismantle the bourgeois state. Proponents often advocated for direct action, including visible attempts on heads of state, to achieve their objectives.

The Paris Commune (1870)

In 1870, the Paris Commune was established, organized by the City Hall of Paris. It fought against the government of Adolphe Thiers. This revolutionary commune was eventually outlawed, but its legacy encouraged the establishment of socialist political parties across Europe.