Ethics: Values, Morality, and Kant's Philosophy

Values and Moral Norms

Values and Moral Norms: Freedom makes man a moral being by nature. If man is not free, if his conduct was predetermined, it is absurd to speak of moral rules. Rules are present in every individual. In principle, the child is subject to the rules imposed by society. But slowly, consciousness tends to develop its own rules.

Morality Defined

Morality: It is characterized by:

• It is attributed mainly to the relationship between a human act and a moral standard. If the act is consistent with the rule, it is right, and if otherwise, it is unjust.
• Can only be attributed to persons. Never said of an animal or a plant.
• Affects the whole person and not only in part.
• Is imposed as a necessary requirement for all people.

Sources of Values

Objectivism

Sources of Values: Objectivism:

• Values exist by themselves outside individuals, and society knows them.
• A moral order and purpose are needed to serve as a guide.
• People discover their values through reason.
• This position is defended by Plato and Scheler.

Subjectivism

Subjectivism:

• There are no objective values.
• Values are human creations. The source of values like fair or honest depends on findings, preferences, or feelings.
• This position leads to radical subjectivism.
• Subjectivism has been defended by Friedrich Nietzsche and Sartre.

Kant's Ethics

Duty and Imperatives

KANT: Duty and Imperatives: Practical principles are those that guide conduct. Two types:

• Hypothetical Imperatives: When conduct is directed by empirical means and ends (material, individual, etc.). These are called maxims.
• Categorical Imperatives: These are not conditioned by any material means or end. They are a priori, i.e., independent of experience, everything external. These imperatives are universal and are called laws.

Postulates of Practical Reason

The Postulates of Practical Reason:

• Freedom: Man must be free to act morally.
• Immortality of the Soul: The soul must be immortal because although the moral law seeks the highest good, this is often not possible in this world.
• The Existence of a Supreme Being, i.e., God: Because many men who act according to the correct moral law do not get the reward of happiness in this life.