Ethics and Morality: Principles of Human Conduct

Understanding Ethics: Core Concepts and Distinctions

Etymology and Definition of Ethics

Ethics is a concept derived from the Greek word "ethos," which means 'custom,' 'character,' 'habit,' or 'disposition.' Its etymology is similar to that of 'morality.'

Ethics vs. Morality: Key Differences

While 'ethics' and 'morality' are often used interchangeably, many scholars establish a primary distinction. Ethics is the philosophical discipline that studies morality, forming a core part of moral philosophy.

Ethics is the discipline that studies how human actions should be to be considered morally good. It examines how we ought to act to live a morally upright life and explores various systems where human happiness is often considered the ultimate goal.

The Subject of Ethics: Human Acts

Ethics is not an exclusive domain; it traditionally distinguishes between human acts and acts of man. Human acts are those for which one can properly say they are morally good or morally bad.

Characteristics of Human Acts

For an act to be considered a human act, it must possess three key characteristics:

• It must be voluntary, meaning it proceeds from the will.
• It must be free, implying the agent acts without coercion.
• It must be conscious, meaning the agent is aware of their actions.

Determinism vs. Indeterminism

Determinists assert that human freedom does not exist, claiming everything that occurs is determined by physical and natural laws, thus leaving no room for human freedom. Indeterminists, conversely, argue that human freedom does exist.

Acts of Man

Conversely, acts of man are not the proper object of ethics; they are neither morally good nor morally bad. These are actions performed without full deliberation, voluntariness, or freedom (e.g., reflexes, actions during sleep).

Ethics and Law: A Comparative Analysis

It is crucial to distinguish ethics from law, noting several key differences:

1. Enforcement: Legal norms are compulsory and enforced by juridical sanctions imposed by courts. Ethical norms, conversely, are fulfilled by the dictates of one's own conscience, and a feeling of fault or guilt arises when they are not complied with.
2. Alignment: One may act in accordance with both law and ethics. However, it is also possible for a person to act juridically well (legally) yet be morally evil, and vice versa.
3. Focus: Ethics heavily emphasizes intentions. Law, while sometimes considering intentions, primarily focuses on the results and consequences of actions.

Is Ethics a Science?

Some consider ethics to be a science. As such, one definition states: It is the science that studies, through practical reason, how one ought to act to live morally well. In this sense, ethics is considered a science, often viewed as a branch of philosophy.

Foundations of Morality: Reason vs. Sentiment (Hume)

Regarding the foundation of morality, David Hume famously argued that morality is not based on reason, but rather on sentiment—specifically, feelings of approval or disapproval. According to Hume, we consider acts morally good because they evoke a feeling of approval within us, and morally bad because they produce a feeling of disapproval. However, he contended that one cannot logically demonstrate why these acts are inherently good or bad.

Verifiability of Moral Statements (Ayer)

Alfred Jules Ayer distinguished two classes of verifiable statements:

• Analytical: Statements that can be verified mentally, often through logical analysis (e.g., definitions, tautologies).
• Factual: Statements that can be verified only through empirical observation.

Ayer argued that moral statements do not belong exclusively to either analytical or factual categories, suggesting they express emotions rather than verifiable truths.