Ethical Theories and Moral Philosophy

Introduction to Ethics

Ethics is a philosophical reflection on morality. It studies the origin of moral codes that guide conduct and examines the consequences of our moral actions. Ethics helps us construct informed opinions when faced with moral dilemmas and provides a rationale for understanding moral behavior.

Three Main Ethical Frameworks

Ethical theories can be broadly categorized into three groups:

• Consequentialist Ethics (Ethical Purposes): Focuses on the outcomes or consequences of actions. A moral action is one that maximizes good consequences.
• Deontological Ethics (Ethics of Duty): Emphasizes moral duties and obligations. A moral action is one performed in accordance with duty, regardless of the consequences.
• Virtue Ethics: Centers on the character of the moral agent. A moral action is one performed by a virtuous person.

Consequentialist Theories

Eudaemonism (Aristotle)

This theory argues that the ultimate goal of human beings is happiness (eudaimonia). Aristotle believed that all human beings desire happiness and that we should always choose the most prudent option to achieve it.

Hedonism (Epicurus)

Hedonism posits that the ultimate end of human life is to achieve pleasure. This refers to both physical and spiritual pleasures and the avoidance of pain.

Moral Emotivism (David Hume)

Hume argued that moral behavior is driven by the desire to achieve joy, comfort, and happiness for as many people as possible. Our own happiness is intertwined with the happiness of those around us.

Utilitarianism (Jeremy Bentham)

Bentham believed that human beings always act in pursuit of the greatest happiness for the greatest number of people. He emphasized the importance of measuring pleasures to determine the best course of action.

Utilitarianism (John Stuart Mill)

Mill refined Bentham's utilitarianism by arguing that pleasures differ not only in quantity but also in quality. He also advocated for democracy as the best form of government.

Deontological Theories

Kantian Ethics (Immanuel Kant)

Kant argued that our behavior should be guided by reason and duty, not by the pursuit of rewards or avoidance of punishment. He formulated the concept of "categorical imperatives," which are unconditional moral obligations derived from reason.

Existentialist Ethics (Jean-Paul Sartre)

Sartre's existentialist ethics emphasizes individual freedom and responsibility. Choosing one action over another simultaneously assigns value to that choice and implies a belief that it is good for everyone. Individuals must always choose one of the available options.

Dialogical and Other Ethical Theories

Dialogical Ethics (Jürgen Habermas)

Habermas proposes an ethics of duty where universality is achieved through dialogue and consensus.

Muguerza's Theory

This theory suggests that progress toward a better and more just society requires expressing dissatisfaction with the current situation.

Rawls's Theory of Justice (John Rawls)

Rawls argues that behavior is morally acceptable if it satisfies certain principles of justice, including the principle of maximum liberty and the principle of social justice.