Ethical Frameworks: Comparing Moral Theories and Religious Doctrines

1. Fundamental Moral Conflicts

Human existence inherently generates conflicts that individuals must address. Societies establish rules intended to resolve these issues, though the outcomes of these resolutions can be positive or negative. Unresolved conflicts often lead to tragedies, impacting the happiness and dignity of persons.

Core Areas of Moral Conflict

• The value of life
• Duties to the community, power, and its exercise
• Property rights
• Sexuality and family structure
• Care of the vulnerable (the weak)
• Interactions with foreigners
• Questions of death and the divine

2. Religious Perspectives on Ethics

Christianity

Christian ethics centers on the command to love God and neighbor, upholding the dignity of every human being. It advocates for peace and strictly forbids violence and hatred.

Islam

Islamic practice is founded upon the Five Pillars:

1. Faith (Shahada)
2. Prayer (Salat) five times a day
3. Charity (Zakat)
4. Fasting (Sawm)
5. Pilgrimage to Mecca (Hajj)

Hinduism

Hinduism emphasizes Karma, where good actions determine the future of souls and lead to spiritual progress and goodness.

Buddhism

Buddhism views the material world as a source of suffering. Salvation is achieved by renouncing material desires and attachments, leading to enlightenment.

3. Material Ethical Theories

These theories define the good based on achieving a specific, tangible end or goal (the material good).

• Epicureanism: Defines the highest good as pleasure (ataraxia), achieved through tranquility and guided by reason.
• Utilitarianism: The good action is that which achieves the greatest happiness for the greatest number of people.
• Christian Philosophy (Natural Law): The good is achieved by following the natural law, which is imposed by God. Authentic happiness is found in union with God.
• Cynicism: The virtuous person finds happiness in a simple life, rejecting conventional desires and external pleasures.

4. Formal Ethics (Deontology)

Formal ethical theories, particularly those based on duty, assert that what motivates human behavior is not the pursuit of a specific end or supreme good, but rather the selfless act guided solely by the dictates of conscience and rational duty.

The Kantian Standard

Formal ethics arose prominently in the eighteenth century with Immanuel Kant. Kant sought to establish a universal moral standard to guide the conduct of all mankind. He argued that reason could not definitively determine what leads to happiness or away from it; therefore, morality must be based purely on duty, regardless of whether it results in personal happiness.

5. Universal Ethical Models and Modern Challenges

New Problems, New Proposals

Traditional cultural or religious moral frameworks have had to evolve significantly to meet new global challenges, particularly those arising from increased contact between diverse cultures.

Key Modern Ethical Claims and Conflicts

• Demands for equality across historical divides (e.g., free/slave, white/black, men/women).
• Ethical positions that challenge or denigrate traditional views, such as those concerning the status of children born outside traditional marriage.