Essential Principles of Geography and Demography

Foundations of Geography

Branches of Geography

• Physical Geography: The study of natural features like landforms and climate.
• Human Geography: The study of people, their communities, and cultures.

Types of Maps

• General-Purpose Maps: Display a wide range of information about an area.
• Thematic Maps: Focus on a specific theme, such as population density or climate zones.
• Topographic Maps: Show detailed information about the shape and features of the land's surface.

Location Systems

• Military Grid Reference System: Uses easting (vertical lines) and northing (horizontal lines) for precise location.
• Latitude: Horizontal lines measuring distance north or south of the equator.
• Longitude: Vertical lines measuring distance east or west of the prime meridian.

Time Zones

The world is divided into 24 time zones. Canada has six of these zones. EST refers to Eastern Standard Time.

Map Scales

• Direct Statement Scale: Expressed in words, such as "1 cm = 2 km".
• Representative Fraction (RF) Scale: A ratio, such as "1:200,000", where one unit on the map equals 200,000 of the same unit on the ground.
• Line Scale: A visual bar scale that shows the relationship between map distance and real-world distance.

Compass Directions

• Cardinal Points: North (N), East (E), South (S), and West (W).
• Ordinal Points: The intercardinal directions, including Northeast (NE), Southeast (SE), Southwest (SW), and Northwest (NW).

Physical Geography

Plate Tectonics

The theory describing the movement of Earth's lithospheric plates:

• Divergent Boundary: Plates move apart.
• Convergent Boundary: Plates move together.
• Transform Boundary: Plates slide past each other.
• Subduction: One plate moves under another.

Geological Forces

• Weathering: The process of breaking down rocks.
• Erosion: The process of moving weathered material.
• Deposition: The process of dropping or settling eroded material.

The Rock Cycle

The continuous process where rocks are created, changed, and destroyed: Igneous → Sedimentary → Metamorphic → and the cycle repeats.

Glaciation

The process by which glaciers and ice sheets shape the landscape, creating features like valleys, lakes, and distinct landforms.

Landform Regions

Major physical regions are categorized as:

• The Canadian Shield
• Interior Plains
• Great Lakes-St. Lawrence Lowlands
• Mountain Ranges

Climate Factors (LOWERN)

An acronym for the six key factors that influence an area's climate:

• Latitude
• Ocean Currents
• Wind and Air Masses
• Elevation
• Relief (the shape of the land)
• Nearness to Water

Weather vs. Climate

• Weather: The short-term atmospheric conditions of a specific place and time.
• Climate: The long-term average of weather patterns in a region.

Soil Composition

• Humus: The top layer of soil, rich in organic matter.
• Loam: An ideal soil mixture for agriculture, containing sand, silt, and clay.

Natural Vegetation

The type of plant life in a region, which is primarily determined by the local soil and climate conditions.

Human and Economic Geography

Population Patterns

• Dispersed: Population is spread out over a large area.
• Concentrated: Population is clustered in a small area.
• Linear: Population is settled in a line, often along a river or road.

Ecumene

The part of the Earth's surface that is permanently inhabited.

• Continuous Ecumene: A large, unbroken area of settlement.
• Discontinuous Ecumene: Patches of settlement separated by uninhabited areas.

Census Metropolitan Area (CMA)

An urban area consisting of a major city and its surrounding suburbs, with a total population of over 100,000 people.

Resource Management

• Flow Resources: Renewable resources that must be used when and where they occur, such as water and wind.
• Store Resources: Resources that can be stored and used when needed, such as forests and lakes.

The 3Rs of Conservation

A hierarchy of waste management: Reduce is the most effective, followed by Reuse, and finally Recycle.

Farming Methods

• Intensive Farming: Requires a large amount of input (labor, capital) on a small area of land.
• Extensive Farming: Uses a small amount of input on a large area of land.

Sustainability Certifications

• FSC (Forest Stewardship Council): Certifies that forest products come from responsibly managed forests.
• MSC (Marine Stewardship Council): Certifies that seafood comes from sustainable fisheries.

Types of Fish and Fisheries

• Pelagic Fish: Live in the open water column.
• Groundfish: Live near the bottom of the sea.
• Shellfish: Includes crustaceans and mollusks like crabs.
• Inshore Fisheries: Small-scale fishing operations close to the coast.
• Offshore Fisheries: Large-scale, industrial fishing operations far from the coast.

The Water Cycle

The continuous movement of water on, above, and below the surface of the Earth: Evaporation → Condensation → Precipitation → Runoff. PET (Potential Evapotranspiration) is the maximum potential water loss from evaporation and plant transpiration.

Mining Methods

• Strip Mining: A surface mining technique used for shallow deposits.
• Open-Pit Mining: A surface technique that creates a large, deep hole.
• Underground Mining: Involves digging tunnels and shafts; generally considered the least environmentally harmful method.

Industry Sectors

• Goods-Producing Industries: Focus on manufacturing and making tangible products.
• Service Industries: Focus on providing assistance and services to people.

Factors for Factory Location

Key considerations include access to labor, energy sources, transportation networks, proximity to the market, and local tax policies.

Manufacturing Decline

A decrease in manufacturing activity, often due to technological advancements and global outsourcing to lower-cost regions.

International Trade

• Free Trade: The elimination of trade barriers like tariffs between countries.
• Tariffs: Taxes imposed on imported goods to protect domestic industries.

Demography and Population Studies

What is Demography?

Demography is the statistical study of human populations, including their size, structure, and distribution.

Population Growth Factors

Population change is determined by four main factors: births, deaths, immigration (moving in), and emigration (moving out).

The Rule of 70

A simple way to estimate the doubling time of a population: divide 70 by the annual percentage growth rate. For example, a 2% growth rate results in a doubling time of 35 years (70 ÷ 2 = 35).

Push vs. Pull Factors of Migration

• Push Factors: Reasons that encourage people to leave an area, such as war or poverty.
• Pull Factors: Reasons that attract people to a new area, such as job opportunities and safety.

Immigration Categories

Immigrants are often classified into several categories:

• Economic Immigrants: Admitted based on their skills and ability to contribute to the economy.
• Family Class: Sponsored by relatives already living in the country.
• Refugees: People fleeing persecution, war, or disaster.
• Other: Admitted for humanitarian or compassionate reasons.

Settlement Patterns

New immigrants often settle in major urban centers like Toronto, where there are established communities and more economic opportunities.

Dependency Load

The portion of the population that is not in the workforce, typically defined as those under the age of 15 and over the age of 65.

Demographic Transition Model (DTM)

A model describing population change over time through five stages:

1. Stage 1: High birth rates and high death rates.
2. Stage 2: Death rates drop while birth rates remain high.
3. Stage 3: Birth rates begin to drop.
4. Stage 4: Low birth and death rates lead to a stable population.
5. Stage 5: Death rates exceed birth rates, leading to population decline.

The Demographic Trap

A situation where a country experiences rapid population growth that outpaces its economic development and resource availability.

International Aid

• Bilateral Aid: Assistance given directly from one country to another.
• Multilateral Aid: Aid provided by international organizations like the United Nations (UN).

Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs)

Non-profit, citizen-based groups that operate independently of government to address social or political issues, such as Oxfam.

Urbanization Concepts

• Urbanization: The increase in the percentage of a population living in urban areas.
• Urban Growth: The increase in the absolute number of people living in urban areas.

Urban Sprawl and Livability

• Urban Sprawl: The uncontrolled expansion of low-density development from a city into the surrounding countryside.
• Livability: The overall quality of life in a city, considering factors like safety, employment, and public spaces.