Essential Literary Terms and Analysis Techniques

Types of Narrator

Definition: The kind of voice telling the story, categorized by perspective (participant/observer) and trustworthiness (reliable/unreliable, omniscient/objective).

Examples of Narrative Voice

• In Raymond Carver’s “Cathedral,” the narrator is unreliable; his judgments about Robert reveal his own ignorance, not the truth.
• In Ernest Hemingway’s “Hills Like White Elephants,” the narrator is objective, refusing to interpret events and forcing readers to infer the emotional stakes.

Metaphor

Definition: A figure of speech comparing two unlike things without using “like” or “as.”

Example: In John Cheever’s “The Swimmer,” Neddy’s journey through neighborhood pools is a powerful metaphor for life, aging, and decline.

Symbolism

Definition: The use of an object, image, or event to represent a deeper, often abstract, meaning.

Symbolic Elements in Literature

• In “Hills Like White Elephants,” the train tracks symbolize choice and direction.
• The white hills in the same story suggest fertility and purity.

The Iceberg Theory (Hemingway)

Definition: Ernest Hemingway’s theory asserting that the most important meaning of a story lies beneath the surface. What is left unsaid is often the most powerful element.

Example: “Hills Like White Elephants” is a classic application. The word “abortion” is never used, yet the subtext drives the entire emotional tension of the dialogue.

Allusion

Definition: A brief, indirect reference to another text, historical event, or idea.

Example: “The Swimmer” contains allusions to mythic and biblical journeys, elevating Neddy’s mundane trip to an epic quest.

American Minimalism

Definition: A literary style popularized by authors like Ernest Hemingway and Raymond Carver, characterized by:

• Simple, unadorned language.
• Everyday, often mundane, settings.
• Emotional understatement and indirect expression.

Example: “Hills Like White Elephants” exemplifies Minimalism through its short, sparse dialogue and indirect handling of profound emotional conflict.

Ethical Systems in Literature

Literary characters often operate within specific ethical frameworks, primarily:

Deontology

Definition: An ethical system where morality is based on duty or fixed principles. Actions are judged as right or wrong regardless of their consequences.

Consequentialism (Utilitarianism)

Definition: An ethical system where morality is judged solely by the outcomes. The right choice is the one that leads to the greatest good for the greatest number.

Application Example

In “Hills Like White Elephants,” the man’s reasoning is utilitarian (“everything will be fine afterward”), focusing on the desired outcome. Jig, however, seems to struggle with the deeper moral and emotional consequences.

Irony

Definition: A fundamental literary device involving a contrast or discrepancy between expectation and reality.

Situational Irony

The contrast between what is expected to happen and what actually happens.

Example: In “The Swimmer,” Neddy expects a triumphant, refreshing journey but ends in emotional and physical ruin.

Verbal Irony

When a speaker says one thing but means the opposite.

Example: In “Hills Like White Elephants,” the man’s claim, “I don’t want you to do it if you don’t want to,” is verbally ironic, as he clearly pressures Jig to comply.

Dramatic Irony

When the audience or reader knows something that the characters do not.

Example: In “Cathedral,” the reader understands that Robert, the blind man, “sees” life and human connection more clearly than the sighted narrator does.

Southern Gothic

Definition: A literary subgenre set in the Southern United States that employs elements of decay, violence, and grotesque characters to expose underlying moral and spiritual issues.

Example: Flannery O’Connor’s “A Good Man Is Hard to Find” is a classic example. The contrast between the polite grandmother and the sinister Misfit, culminating in a violent climax, exposes themes of moral corruption and unexpected grace.