Essential English Grammar and Vocabulary Notes

Memory and Learning Terms

• Long-term memory
• Short-term memory
• Process information
• Recycle information
• Effective strategy (estrategia efectiva)
• Short-term deadline (fecha limite)
• Fail an exam/test
• Pass an exam/test

Modal Verbs

• Obligation: must, have to + verb base form
• Recommendation or Advice: should, ought to
• Probability or Possibility: can, may (more formal), might (more informal)
• Ability: can, be able to
• Necessity: need to
• Prohibition: mustn't, can't

Adjectives: -ing vs. -ed

Adjectives ending in -ing describe the situation or thing causing the feeling.

Adjectives ending in -ed describe the feeling itself.

• Stressful (situation) vs. Stressed (feeling)
• Impressive (thing) vs. Impressed (feeling)
• Repulsive (thing) vs. Repulsed (feeling)
• Attractive (thing) vs. Attracted (feeling)

Gerund (-ing) vs. Infinitive (to + base form)

Gerund (-ing) Usage:

• After verbs like: like, love, hate, enjoy, admit, finish, begin, miss
• After prepositions
• When functioning as the subject of a sentence
• After the expression "let's go" + sport (e.g., Let's go swimming)

Infinitive (to + base form) Usage:

• After verbs like: want, hope, intend, plan, expect, decide, afford
• After adjectives
• After verb + object (e.g., I want *you* to help)
• With the expression "would like" (+ object)

Vocabulary: Challenges and Nature

• Boredom (aburrimiento)
• Challenge
• Collision
• Dehydration
• Desert
• Dilemma
• Equipment
• Exhaustion
• Experience
• Exposure
• Flooding (inundacion)
• Frostbite (hipotermia)
• Glacier
• Goal
• Isolation (aislamiento)
• Journey (viaje)
• Jungle
• Navigation
• Ocean
• Protection
• Setback (contratiempo)
• Storm
• Sunburn (quemadura de sol)
• Voyage (viaje)

Past Tenses

Past Simple

Form: Verb + -ed (regular) or 2nd form (irregular), Did/Didn't + base form (questions/negatives)

Usage: Actions that started and finished in the past.

Time markers: yesterday, in 1975, ages ago, last week/month/year, when...

Past Continuous

Form: Was/Were + verb + -ing

Usage: Actions that were ongoing at a specific point or period in the past, or actions providing background context.

Time markers: while, as

Past Perfect Simple

Form: Had + 3rd form (past participle)

Usage: Actions that happened before another action or point in the past.

Time markers: already, yet, after, before

Past Perfect Continuous

Form: Had + been + verb + -ing

Usage: Actions that continued up to a point in the past.

Conjunctions

• Even though / Although (aunque): followed by subject + verb
• In spite of / Despite (a pesar de): followed by gerund (-ing) or noun

Noun Formation (Adjective/Verb to Noun)

• Big - Size
• Cold - Coldness
• Deep - Depth (profundo)
• Dry - Drought (seco)
• Fast - Speed
• Hard - Hardness (dificil)
• Hot - Heat
• Loud - Loudness (ruidoso)
• Long - Length
• Soft - Softness
• Quiet - Quietness
• See - Sight
• Smell - Smell
• Strong - Strength
• Taste - Taste
• Touch - Touch
• Weigh - Weight (pesar)
• Young - Youth
• High - Height (alto)
• Hear - Hearing
• Old - Age
• Wide - Width (amplio)

Pronouns and Suffixes

Pronouns:

• Whom (object pronoun, e.g., him, her, us)
• Whose (possessive pronoun/determiner, e.g., his, her)

Common Suffixes:

• -er
• -or
• -ent / -ant
• -ee
• -ist
• -an / -ian