Essential English Grammar Topics

Modal Verbs for Speculation

When you are sure something is true:

• Ex: He must be rich. He drives a Ferrari.
• He hasn't come to class. He must have fallen asleep.
• He must be sleeping.

When you are not sure something is true (50-50):

• Ex: He hasn't come to class. He might/may/could be ill.
• He hasn't passed the exam. He may/might not have studied very much (do not use 'could' in negatives).

When you are sure something is not true:

• Ex: He can't be Spanish. He only speaks English.
• He got a 0 in the exam. He can't/couldn't have studied very much.

'Should' for Expectations:

• Ex: The classes aren't complicated this year. The exam SHOULD BE quite easy.

Inversion

• Not only is my brother lazy, but he's also very selfish.
• Not until you can behave like an adult will we treat you like an adult.
• Never have I heard such a ridiculous argument.
• No sooner had the football match started than it began to snow heavily.
• Not only did you forget to shut the window, but you also forgot to lock the door!
• Not until you became a parent yourself do you understand what it really means.
• The train began to move. Only then was I able to relax.
• Only when you leave home do you realize how expensive everything is.
• Hardly had I sat down when the train began to move.
• Rarely have I met a more irritating person.

Connectors

• And
• When
• Or
• But
• However (sin embargo)
• Because
• Moreover (además)
• Along with (junto con)
• As (como)
• If
• As soon as (tan pronto como)
• So (así, tan, tanto, de este modo, por lo tanto)
• Since (desde, ya que, desde que, pues, comoquiera que)
• Even if (aunque)
• While (mientras que)
• Though (sin embargo)
• Unless (a menos que)
• After (después)
• As though (como si)
• Furthermore (además)
• Because of (a causa de, debido a, por, con motivo de)
• As well as (así como, además de)

Abstract Nouns

• Sad -> Sadness
• Happy -> Happiness
• Amused (divertido) -> Amusement (diversión)
• Scared -> Fear
• Ashamed -> Shame
• Afraid -> Fear
• Believe -> Belief
• Dead -> Death
• Hate -> Hatred
• Lose -> Loss
• Poor -> Poverty
• Fuerza -> Might/Force/Strength/Power
• Adult -> Adulthood
• Child -> Childhood
• Neighbour -> Neighbourhood
• Friend -> Friendship
• Partner -> Partnership
• Member -> Membership
• Relation -> Relationship
• Bored -> Boredom
• Free -> Freedom
• Wise -> Wisdom
• Ill -> Illness
• Kind -> Kindness
• Celebrate -> Celebration
• Compete -> Competition
• Imagine -> Imagination