Essential English Grammar Concepts

Reported Speech: Direct vs. Indirect Style

Direct Style (enclosed in quotation marks) vs. Indirect Style (reported by us at a later time).

Verb Tense Changes in Reported Speech

• Direct: “I write a letter” (Present Simple)
  Indirect: He said he wrote a letter (Past Simple)
• Direct: “I am writing a letter” (Present Continuous)
  Indirect: She said she was writing a letter (Past Continuous)
• Direct: “I have written a letter” (Present Perfect)
  Indirect: He said he had written a letter (Past Perfect)
• Direct: “I wrote a letter” (Past Simple)
  Indirect: She said she had written a letter (Past Perfect)
• Direct: “I was writing a letter” (Past Continuous)
  Indirect: He said he had been writing a letter (Past Perfect Continuous)
• Direct: “I’ll write a letter” (Will)
  Indirect: She said she would write a letter (Would)
• Direct: “I can write a letter” (Can)
  Indirect: He said he could write a letter (Could)
• Direct: “I may write a letter” (May)
  Indirect: She said she might write a letter (Might)
• Direct: “I must go” (Must)
  Indirect: He said that he had to go (Note: 'must' cannot be used for past reference, so 'had to' is used)

Time and Place Adverb Changes in Reported Speech

• Now → Then, at that time
• Today → That day
• Tomorrow → The following day, the next day, a day later
• Yesterday → The previous day, the day before
• Next month → The following month, the next month, a month later
• Last month → The previous month, the month before, the preceding month
• Five weeks ago → Five weeks before, five weeks earlier
• Here → There

Passive Voice Transformations

• watch → are watched
• watched → were watched
• will watch → will be watched
• am watching → are being watched
• have watched → have been watched
• would watch → would be watched

Conditional Sentences

First Conditional (Type 1)

Structure: If + Present Simple, Will + Verb

Example: If he fails his exams, he will not go abroad.

Second Conditional (Type 2)

Structure: If + Past Simple, Would + Verb

Example: If I won the lottery, I would buy a Ferrari.

Third Conditional (Type 3)

Structure: If + Past Perfect, Would + Have + Past Participle

Example: If he had studied, he would have passed.

Relative Pronouns

• WHO – Used for people: The man who lives on the second floor is a doctor.
• WHICH – Used for objects / animals: The book which you gave me is interesting.
• THAT – Can replace both who and which in a more informal register: The man that lives… // The book that you gave me is interesting.

Expressions of Cause (Causal Clauses)

• because
• as
• since
• for
• due to
• owing to
• because of

"I Wish" and "If Only"

The phrases "I wish" and "if only" are followed by "that" (optional) and express a desire for something to be different, often meaning "I hope" or "I would like". They convey a sense of longing or regret.

Example: I wish [that] / If only you were here! (¡Ojalá estuvieras / estuvieses aquí!)

"So... That" and "Such... That"

Both structures mean "tan... que" (so... that).

1. With Adjective / Adverb (without a noun) – Use "SO"

Example: He was so tired that he fell asleep immediately.

2. With Adjective and Noun – Use "SUCH"

Example: It was such a beautiful day that we went to the beach.

Discourse Markers and Connectors

Starting a Process or Explanation

• Firstly
• First
• In the first place
• First of all
• To start with
• To begin
• For a start
• At first
• Initially

Sequencing a Process

• Second, third, fourth...
• To get back to the point
• Then
• Later
• Afterwards
• Subsequently
• Secondly, thirdly, etc.
• After that (Note: 'after' alone is a preposition; 'after that' is used as a connector)

Expressing Simultaneity

• During this time
• Meanwhile
• At this point
• At this stage

Concluding a Sequence

• Finally
• A final point
• To conclude
• In conclusion
• Eventually
• Ultimately
• In short
• All in all
• To summarise / To sum up

Common Connectors and Their Functions

• Sequence: first, then, next, later, finally
• Contrast: although, even though, in spite of, despite, however, yet, nevertheless, on the other hand
• Purpose: to, in order to, so as to, so that (modal)
• Reason: because, as, since, owing to, due to, on account of, because of
• Result: so (adj) that, such a (adj, noun) that, so much, therefore, as a result, so many, consequently
• Addition: besides, furthermore, moreover, in addition to (noun)
• Example: for instance, such as
• Condition: if, unless, providing that, provided that, as long as, in case