Essential Elements of Geography: Maps, Climate, Water, and Landforms

Essential Map Elements and Cartography Basics

Graphic Elements of a Map

The primary graphic elements found in a well-designed map are:

1. Chromatic Scale: Used to represent heights and depths, often through color variation.
2. Graphic Scale (Bar Scale): Used to determine actual distances “as the crow flies” directly on the map.
3. Numerical Scale (Ratio Scale): Used to relate and establish distances (e.g., 1:50,000). For instance, on a topographical map, 1 mm on the paper represents 50,000 mm from the ground, or 50 meters. A planisphere would typically use a much smaller scale (e.g., 1:30,000,000).

Other Cartographic Signs and Features

Other important signs and features include:

1. Cartographic Symbols: These are standardized glyphs that represent elements of nature, cities, and roads. Extensive collections of these symbols are compiled in specialized books, conforming to the specific type of map (e.g., nautical chart or road map).
2. The Compass Rose (Rose of the Winds): Indicates the cardinal directions (four), intercardinal directions (four), and secondary intercardinal directions (eight more), often formulated with a ruler.
3. Parallels and Meridians (Graticule): Their values are listed on the side edges (meridians) and the top and bottom edges (parallels), respectively. The most important parallels include the Equator, the Tropics, and the Polar Circles. Key meridians include the Greenwich Meridian and the Antimeridian.

Climate and Weather Fundamentals

Elements of Climate

The measurable components that define climate are:

• Rainfall
• Temperature
• Humidity
• Atmospheric Pressure
• Wind

Climate Factors

Factors that influence and determine the climate of a region:

• Latitude
• Altitude
• Ocean Currents
• Distance to the Sea (Continentality)

Types of Climate

Temperate Climate:

Characterized by moderate temperatures and rainfall. It features four distinct seasons. It may be classified as oceanic or continental.

Cold Climate (Frigid):

Features very long, cold winters and short, mild summers. It can be oceanic, continental, or arctic.

Arid Climate (Dry):

Defined by scarce and scattered rainfall.

Hydrology: River Flow and Regimes

River Flow

Flow: The total volume or amount of water that a river carries past a specific point.

River Regimes (Sources of Water)

The regime describes how a river is fed:

• Pluvial (Rain): Fed primarily by rainfall.
• Nival (Snowmelt): Fed by the melting of snow.
• Glacial: Fed by melting glaciers.
• Mixed (Joint): A combination of two or more feeding schemes.

Geomorphology: Major Types of Relief

Types of Landforms

Cordillera (Mountain Range):

A succession of mountains (natural terrain elevations) linked to each other.

Sierras (Mountain Ranges):

These mountains are generally older, lower, and less steep than cordilleras because they have been significantly eroded over millions of years.

Plateau (Tableland):

A relatively flat area of high ground, elevated above the surrounding land. Plateaus are often caused by the rise and fall of rock blocks.

Plain:

A flat surface of land, often of great length. Plains are typically formed by the accumulation of eroded sediments transported from elsewhere.