Essential Concepts in Linguistics, Semiotics, and Social Theory

Syntagm and Paradigm: Linguistic Relationships

Syntagmatic relationships are about positioning. Paradigmatic relationships are about substitution.

Consider these examples:

• John ate an octopus.
• An octopus ate John.

These two sentences use the exact same words (syntagms), but convey very different meanings because the order (the syntagmatic relationship) of the words changed.

Synchronic vs. Diachronic Linguistics

Diachronic linguistics is the study of changes in language over time. Synchronic linguistics is the study of the linguistic elements and usage of a language at a particular moment.

Diachronic analysis can encompass the general evolution of all languages or the evolution of a particular language or dialect.

Discourse and Discursive Formation

Discourse

Refers to a unit of language longer than a single sentence. Discourse studies examine the form and function of language in conversation, extending beyond small grammatical units like phonemes and morphemes.

Discursive Formation

Conceptually describes the regular communications (written and spoken) that produce such discourses, including informal conversations. As a philosopher, Michel Foucault applied the concept of discursive formation in his analyses of large bodies of knowledge, such as political economy and natural history.

Icon, Index, and Symbol: Semiotic Signs

Icon

The icon is the simplest, as it is a pattern that physically resembles what it 'stands for'. (A picture of your face is an icon of you.)

Index

Defined by some sensory feature (A) that correlates with and thus implies or 'points to' B, something of interest to an animal. (Dark clouds in the west are an index of impending rain.)

Symbol

A mark or character used as a conventional representation of an object, function, or process (e.g., the letter or letters standing for a chemical element, or a character in musical notation).

Marxist Theory: Base and Superstructure

In Marxist theory, capitalist society consists of two parts: the base (or substructure) and the superstructure.

The base comprises the forces and relations of production (e.g., employer–employee work conditions, the technical division of labor, and property relations) into which people enter to produce the necessities and amenities of life.

The base determines society's other relationships and ideas, which comprise its superstructure, including its culture, institutions, political power structures, roles, rituals, art, family culture, and the state.

Ideology and Hegemony in Social Theory

Hegemony

Leadership or dominance by one country or social group over others.

Ideology

A system of ideas or ideals that forms the basis of economic or political theory and policy. It encompasses beliefs, the study of their origin and nature, and visionary speculation, which can sometimes be unrealistic.

The Unconscious Mind: Psychological Depths

Many, if not most, mental operations occur below the level of conscious awareness. The conscious mind contains all the thoughts, feelings, cognitions, and memories we acknowledge, while the unconscious consists of deeper mental processes not readily available to the conscious mind.

Freud's Id, Ego, and Superego

Id

The disorganized part of the personality structure that contains a human's basic, instinctual drives. Id is the only component of personality present from birth. It is the source of a person's bodily needs, wants, desires, and impulses, particularly their sexual and aggressive drives.

Ego

The component of personality responsible for dealing with reality. According to Freud, the ego develops from the id and ensures that the id's impulses can be expressed in a socially acceptable manner.

Superego

The aspect of personality that holds all of our internalized moral standards and ideals, acquired from both parents and society—our sense of right and wrong.

Intertextuality and Paratextuality in Literature

Paratextuality

Meanings alluded to, above or beyond the printed text; interpretations of text.

Intertextuality

Refers to the interdependent ways in which texts stand in relation to one another.

Repetition Compulsion: A Psychological Phenomenon

Repetition compulsion is a psychological phenomenon in which a person repeats an event or its circumstances. This includes reenacting the event or placing oneself in situations where the event is likely to recur. This 're-living' can also manifest as dreams in which memories and feelings of what happened are repeated, or even as hallucinations.

Commodity Fetishism: Marxist Economic Concept

Commodity fetishism is the perception of social relationships involved in production not as relationships among people, but as economic relationships among the money and commodities exchanged in market trade. As such, commodity fetishism transforms the subjective, abstract aspects of economic value into objective, real things that people believe have intrinsic value. This can lead to an alienation where people value products over human relationships.