Enlightenment to Revolution: Shaping Modern Europe

The Enlightenment: Ideas and Impact

The Enlightenment was based on Sapere Aude (Latin for "Dare to Know"), a call for individuals to use their own reason and understanding.

Key Enlightenment Thinkers

• Montesquieu
• Voltaire
• Rousseau
• John Locke (in England)

Core Enlightenment Ideas

• National Sovereignty: Power resides with the people.
• Division of Powers:
  • Legislative: Makes laws.
  • Executive: Governs and enforces laws.
  • Judicial: Interprets laws and administers justice.
• Equality of Citizens: All men are born free and equal.

Enlightened Despotism in Europe

Some monarchs in Europe adopted new Enlightenment ideas into their governments. However, they retained absolute power, caring for the welfare of their people but without their direct participation. Their motto was: "Everything for the people, but without the people."

Economic Liberalism and Adam Smith

Economic liberalism, championed by Adam Smith in his work The Wealth of Nations, proposed that an economy functions best with minimal government interference. Smith introduced the concept of an "invisible hand" that regulates the market through supply and demand.

The motto of liberalism is: "Laissez-faire, laissez-passer" (Let do, let pass).

The American Revolutionary War

The American Revolutionary War, a pivotal moment in history, led to the birth of the United States.

Causes of the American Revolution

• High costs from the Seven Years' War.
• The Proclamation of 1763.
• Desire for liberty and equality.
• "No taxation without representation" in Parliament.
• Economic and Social Factors:
  • Demand for freedom to trade.
  • Rise of the middle class.
• Short-Term Cause: The Boston Tea Party, where American colonists dumped chests of tea in an act of defiance.

Outcome of the American Revolution

The war concluded in 1783 with the signing of the Treaty of Paris, leading to the establishment of the USA. The French Revolution would follow in 1789.

The French Revolution

A transformative period in European history, the French Revolution reshaped political and social structures.

Causes of the French Revolution

• Royal Extravagance:
  • King Louis XVI spent excessively on the palace and personal luxuries.
  • Queen Marie Antoinette was perceived as a lavish spender, acquiring many luxury items.
• Wars contributed to financial strain.
• A significant national deficit, meaning spending exceeded income.
• Absolutism and an unjust socio-political system.
• Poor harvests.
• Influence of Enlightenment ideas.

Short-Term Cause of the French Revolution

King Louis XVI convened the Estates-General to request more funds.

Key Events of the French Revolution

Part 1: The Moderate Revolution

1. Representatives from the Third Estate demanded that voting be by population.
2. The three estates gathered for the Tennis Court Oath, vowing not to disperse until a constitution was established.
3. Louis XVI eventually agreed to the formation of a National Assembly to create a Constitution.
4. A constitution establishing a parliamentary monarchy was written, marking the end of the Old Regime and its privileges.
5. Uprisings occurred in Paris, and nobles were attacked. Many nobles and clergy fled the country.
6. Louis XVI and his family were forced to move to Paris.
7. The Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen was issued, proclaiming freedom, equality, and property rights. (Olympe de Gouges later wrote the Declaration of the Rights of Woman and of the Female Citizen).

Part 2: The Radical Revolution

1. Louis XVI attempted to escape to Austria but was apprehended at the border. The government became more radical, leading to the creation of a republic.
2. King Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette were executed.
3. A coalition of European countries attacked France, but France emerged victorious.
4. The Revolution became highly radical under the Public Safety Committee, led by Maximilien Robespierre. Ultimately, Robespierre himself was executed.
5. Napoleon Bonaparte staged a coup d'état in 1799, marking a new phase.