Enlightenment Principles and 19th Century Political Shifts

Core Enlightenment Tenets

The principles discussed were applied to all areas of life. Critics targeted certain aspects of absolutism, specifically the privileges of the nobility and clergy.

Natural Rights

Individual liberty belonged to all human beings.

Tolerance

Tolerance was the basis of coexistence.

Knowledge and Reason

Using reason was considered the key to happiness. Great importance was placed on education and experimental sciences, which were deemed vital for human progress.

Key Thinkers

• Voltaire: Defended a strong monarchy that respected civil liberties.
• Rousseau: Sovereignty resides in the people, allowing a higher authority to govern in their name.
• Montesquieu: Advocated for the separation of powers: legislative, executive, and judicial.

The Congress of Vienna

The Austrian Foreign Minister, Prince Metternich, played a leading role. He tried to guarantee lasting peace and avoid future revolutions.

• France returned to its pre-Revolution frontiers.
• Austria, Prussia, and Russia acquired new territories.
• States were reinforced around France as protective barriers against future expansion.

Forms of Government

Absolute Monarchy (AB)

Monarchs governed, introduced, and ratified laws and named judges. This was based on The Divine Right of Kings: the monarch was above the law and supposedly chosen by God to govern. There were two exceptions: the Dutch Republic and England.

Liberalism (LIBE)

The power of a monarch needed to be restricted by a constitution that respected the sovereignty of the people and guaranteed individual liberties.

Nationalism (NATIO)

A range of political, social, and economic systems characterized by promoting the interests of a particular nation.

Timeline Snippets

Bourbon Restoration Objective

The objective was to establish stability after a long period of pronunciamientos. The Constitution of 1876 established a Constitutional Monarchy, limited suffrage, and a range of rights and liberties.

Spanish Political System

A system of rotation of power, known as the turno pacífico, saw conservatives, led by Cánovas del Castillo, and liberals (Sagasta) alternate in government. This system was based on the political manipulation of elections, which prevented new parties from participating in government.

Parliamentary Resistance (PARLIA)

People created local governments called Juntas to organize resistance against Joseph I. The important Junta Central Suprema was established in Aranjuez. The French invasion caused a change of location, first to Seville and finally to Cádiz, the only city on the peninsula not occupied by the French.

Cortes of Cádiz (1812)

Groups included Liberals, who favored political reforms, and Conservatives, who supported absolutism. Deputies represented the American Colonies. The Constitution, approved on March 19, 1812, recognized national sovereignty through its representatives. It established Catholicism as the only religion and a hereditary monarchy in which the king approved the laws.