English Grammar Notes

Defining and Non-Defining Relative Clauses

Types of Sentences with Relative Pronouns

1. Defining Clauses

   These clauses provide essential information and cannot be removed without changing the meaning of the sentence. For example: "Ximon is one of the students who got sick."

   In defining clauses, the relative pronoun can be omitted if it is the object of the verb (not the subject).

2. Non-Defining Clauses

   These clauses provide extra information and can be removed without changing the meaning of the sentence. For example: "Ximon, who got sick, is a good student."

Relative Pronouns and Prepositions

1. Informal Style

   The relative pronoun comes before the preposition. For example: "The person who I spoke to..."

2. Formal Style

   The preposition comes before the relative pronoun. For example: "The person to whom I spoke..."

Common relative pronouns include: who, whom, whose, which, that, when, where

Modals and Modal Perfects

1. Advice/Recommendation

• Present: should, ought to, had better
• Past: should have + past participle, ought to have + past participle

2. Possibility

• Present: may, might
• Past: may have + past participle, might have + past participle

3. Obligation

• Present: must, have to, need to
• Past: had to, need have + past participle

4. Ability

• Present: can, be able to (when effort is involved)
• Past: could

5. No Obligation

• Present: don't have to
• Past: didn't have to

6. Deduction

• Present: must (+) / can't (-)
• Past: must have + past participle / can't have + past participle

7. Request

• Present: can, could, may

Present Perfect Continuous

This tense describes an action that started in the past and continues up to the present. It indicates the duration of the action.

Form: have/has + been + present participle (-ing)

Example: I have been sleeping.

Question Form: Have/has + subject + been + present participle (-ing)

Past Perfect Continuous

This tense describes an action that started in the past, continued for some time, and then finished before another past action or time.

Form: had + been + present participle (-ing)

Example: I had been studying.

Question Form: Same as present perfect continuous, but with "had" instead of "have/has"

Writing: A For and Against Essay

Structure

1. Introduction: Introduce the topic and state the purpose of the essay.
2. Arguments For: Present arguments supporting the topic.
3. Arguments Against: Present arguments opposing the topic.
4. Conclusion: Summarize the main points and state your personal opinion.

Connectors

• Contrast: on the one hand / on the other hand, however, nevertheless, although, even though, in spite of, despite, while
• Cause: because, since, as, due to the fact that, owing to, due to, because of
• Addition: also, moreover, in addition, what's more, furthermore, on top of that
• Result: so, for this reason, that's why, consequently, as a result, therefore