Educational Research and Innovation: Methods and Practices

Chapter 1: Research and Innovation in Education

1.1 What is Research?

Research is a systematic process of solving questions and seeking knowledge that has its own rules, that is, a method.

The Goal in Education

It is directed to the search for new knowledge that is useful for the explanation and/or understanding of educational phenomena that affect processes and results.

Valid + Reliable = Knowledge

What is the Difference Between Validity and Reliability?

Reliability of a Source

For knowledge to be scientific, it must be true for everyone, and this is achieved with reliable sources. The lack of reliability generates inaccurate results and affects the content, making it impossible to know if the information obtained is really what we were looking for. Reliability is related to the control of errors when using a source or tool to collect information and refers to accuracy and stability.

Validity in an Investigation

Validity refers to whether the procedure used to collect information is obtaining the data we are looking for. The information will be valid if people interpret the questions in the same way. If they are interpreted differently, they lose validity.

What is the Scientific Method?

The method in an investigation is equivalent to the steps or the procedure that is used to answer a question or problem and also describes the process used to obtain the information and analyze it (design).

Method

The entire process that an investigation follows (also an innovation), from the formulation of a problem or objectives to the description of the procedure used to achieve them.

Design

It is a part of the method and focuses on how to collect and analyze the information necessary to solve the research problem (or how to intervene in an educational innovation).

Types of Reasoning Used in the Scientific Method to Produce Knowledge

Inductive reasoning begins with specific experiences or observations. The researcher observes particular cases or facts and generalizes from them to establish laws or rules.

Deductive reasoning

Hypothetical-deductive reasoning is linked to the scientific method and combines both inductive and deductive approaches. It involves moving between theory and data. Hypotheses can be deduced from a theory and then tested empirically, or they can be generated from observations and contrasted with real data.

1.2 What is Innovation?

Educational innovation is aimed at the implementation of processes, strategies, ideas, etc., in a planned and systematized way, with the aim of introducing changes in current educational practices.

The Goal in Education

The transformation of the educational reality for its improvement, modifying attitudes or methodologies that intervene in the teaching and learning processes. *It must be an improvement or resolve something in a different way (innovation).

Learning + Knowledge = Innovation

Differences Between Change, Improvement, and Reform

Change is any modification in the education system, from small adjustments like new teaching methods to large shifts like online learning. It's neutral—neither good nor bad, just different.

Improvement is a positive change aimed at better outcomes, such as adopting a new curriculum that boosts student engagement and test scores.

Reform is a broad, structural change in the system, like revamping an entire curriculum. Innovation, however, focuses on specific areas, like introducing a new teaching method or program for special needs students.

1.3 Relationship Between Innovation and Research

• Innovation and research in education are interconnected because both aim to address the demands of a constantly changing society.
• Research builds the knowledge base needed to meet new educational challenges and supports decision-making in the innovation process.
• Innovation applies research findings through projects to transform educational practices.
• Both share the goal of improving and advancing educational realities.
• Research provides the necessary knowledge for classroom innovations, while innovation can be viewed as a form of applied research.

1.4 The Need to Research and Innovate in Education

Education professionals must possess knowledge and have skills in both research and innovation in education, because the combination of both will allow:

• Building theoretical knowledge (research).
• Putting this knowledge into practice to improve its function through intervention (innovation).

Points in common between innovation and research

Chapter 2: Designing an Investigation

2.1 The Selection of a Research Approach

Qualitative research: Qualitative research is an approach for exploring and understanding the meaning individuals or groups ascribe to a social or human problem. The process of research involves emerging questions and procedures, data typically collected in the participant's setting, data analysis inductively building from particulars to general themes, and the researcher making interpretations of the meaning of the data. The final written report has a flexible structure. Those who engage in this form of inquiry support a way of looking at research that honors an inductive style, a focus on individual meaning, and the importance of reporting the complexity of a situation.

Quantitative research: Quantitative research is an approach for testing objective theories by examining the relationship among variables. These variables, in turn, can be measured, typically on instruments, so that numbered data can be analyzed using statistical procedures. The final written report has a set structure consisting of an introduction, literature and theory, methods, results, and discussion. Like qualitative researchers, those who engage in this form of inquiry have assumptions about testing theories deductively, building in protections against bias, controlling for alternative or counterfactual explanations, and being able to generalize and replicate the findings.

Mixed methods research: Mixed methods research is an approach to inquiry involving collecting both quantitative and qualitative data, integrating the two forms of data, and using distinct designs that may involve philosophical assumptions and theoretical frameworks. The core assumption of this form of inquiry is that the integration of qualitative and quantitative data yields additional insight beyond the information provided by either the quantitative or qualitative data alone.

1. Quantitative Designs

Survey Research involves collecting quantitative or numerical data to describe trends, attitudes, or opinions of a population by studying a sample. It typically uses questionnaires or structured interviews for data collection and aims to generalize findings from the sample to the broader population. This research can be cross-sectional, capturing data at a single point in time, or longitudinal, which collects data over an extended period.

Experimental Research aims to determine the effect of a specific treatment on an outcome. It does so by administering the treatment to one group and withholding it from another, then comparing the outcomes. There are two main types of experiments:

• True experiments, where participants are randomly assigned to treatment groups.
• Quasi-experiments, which involve nonrandom assignment of participants. Within quasi-experiments, there are single-subject designs that focus on individual responses to treatment.

2. Qualitative Designs

Narrative research: Narrative research is a design of inquiry from the humanities in which the researcher studies the lives of individuals and asks one or more individuals to provide stories about their lives. This information is then often retold or restoried by the researcher into a narrative chronology. Often, in the end, the narrative combines views from the participant's life with those of the researcher's life in a collaborative narrative.

Phenomenological research: Phenomenological research is a design of inquiry coming from philosophy and psychology in which the researcher describes the lived experiences of individuals about a phenomenon as described by participants. This description culminates in the essence of the experiences for several individuals who have all experienced the phenomenon. This design has strong philosophical underpinnings and typically involves conducting interviews.

Grounded theory: Grounded theory is a design of inquiry from sociology in which the researcher derives a general, abstract theory of a process, action, or interaction grounded in the views of participants. This process involves using multiple stages of data collection and the refinement and interrelationship of categories of information.

Ethnography: Ethnography is a design of inquiry coming from anthropology and sociology in which the researcher studies the shared patterns of behaviors, language, and actions of an intact cultural group in a natural setting over a prolonged period of time. Data collection often involves observations and interviews.

Case studies: Case studies are a design of inquiry found in many fields, especially evaluation, in which the researcher develops an in-depth analysis of a case, often a program, event, activity, process, or one or more individuals. Cases are bounded by time and activity, and researchers collect detailed information using a variety of data collection procedures over a sustained period of time.

3. Mixed Methods Designs

Convergent mixed methods: Combines quantitative and qualitative data collected simultaneously to provide a comprehensive analysis, resolving any contradictions through integrated interpretation.

Explanatory sequential mixed methods: Starts with quantitative research followed by qualitative research to explain and expand on the initial results in a sequential process.

Exploratory sequential mixed methods: Begins with qualitative research to explore perspectives and uses the findings to inform a subsequent quantitative phase, often to develop tools, interventions, or define variables for further study.

Philosophical Worldviews

Postpositivism seeks to identify causes of outcomes through objective observation, measurement, and testing of theories using the scientific method, focusing on reducing complex ideas into testable variables.

Social constructivism emphasizes understanding the world through individuals' subjective experiences, shaped by social, historical, and cultural interactions, with researchers focusing on participants' views to develop meaning inductively rather than starting with a theory.

The transformative worldview emphasizes research as a tool for social change, addressing issues like oppression and inequality, with participants actively involved in the process to promote empowerment, raise awareness, and drive reform.

The pragmatic worldview focuses on practical solutions to problems, prioritizing the research problem over specific methods and using multiple approaches to generate useful knowledge.

Chapter 3: Types of Methodologies

3.1 Quantitative Methods

Experimental Design: Establishes cause-and-effect relationships by manipulating the independent variable, randomly assigning participants to groups, and controlling extraneous variables.

Quasi-Experimental Design: Also manipulates the independent variable but lacks random assignment, making it suitable for natural settings like classrooms while attempting to control group differences through alternative methods.

Non-Experimental Design (Observation): Involves no manipulation or intervention, focusing instead on analyzing naturally occurring variables and relationships, often through systematic or unsystematic observation methods.

Sample Election

A population can be defined as a group that shares a characteristic of interest to the researcher. A sample can be defined as a subset of elements of a population that allows the researcher to obtain a series of data, to order, simplify, describe or make inferences about the population; In the case of surveys, there is not an inferential interest but a descriptive one.

Chapter 4: Methodological Tools

4.1 Survey

Definition

A survey is a research method used to collect data from a predefined group of respondents to gain information and insights about various topics of interest. The primary goal of a survey is to answer specific research questions or test hypotheses by collecting data related to variables of interest.

Types of Survey Questions

• Multiple-Choice Questions: Respondents select one option from several alternatives.
• Sort Order Questions: Respondents rank preferences or priorities.
• Likert Scale Questions: Measure the degree of agreement or disagreement with statements on a fixed scale (e.g., 1-5 or 1-7).

Survey Design

1. Purpose: Define the survey's goal, such as answering research questions or studying variables.
2. Method Justification: Explain why a survey is the best approach, emphasizing its advantages like cost and speed.
3. Type: Choose between cross-sectional (single point in time) or longitudinal (over time).
4. Data Collection: Select the method (mail, phone, internet, interviews) and justify it based on strengths, costs, and convenience.

4.3 Case Study

Classification

By Objective:

1. Intrinsic: Understands the case itself (e.g., solving a specific issue).
2. Instrumental: Explores broader theories using the case.
3. Collective: Studies multiple cases to analyze general phenomena.

By Methodology:

1. Descriptive: Detailed reports without theoretical basis.
2. Interpretive: Develops theories through conceptual categories.
3. Evaluative: Assesses value and suggests interventions.

2.2 The Introduction

The introduction is the part of the paper that provides readers with the background information for the research reported in the paper. Its purpose is to establish a framework for the research, so that readers can understand how it is related to other research.

Major Components Included in an Abstract

• Start with the issue or problem: Start with the issue or problem leading to a need for the research. This issue might be related to a need for more literature, but we like to think about a real-life problem that needs to be addressed, such as the spread of AIDS, teenage pregnancies, college students dropping out of school, or the lack of women in certain professions. These are all real-life problems that need to be addressed. The problem could also indicate a deficiency in the literature, such as a gap, a need to extend a topic, or to resolve differences among research studies. You could cite a reference or two about this “problem,” but generally, the abstract is too short to include many references.
• Indicate the purpose of the study: Indicate the purpose of the study. Use the word purpose or the term study aim or objective, and talk about the central phenomenon being explored, the participants who will be studied, and the site where the research will take place.
• Next state what data will be collected: Next, state what data will be collected to address this purpose. You might indicate the type of data, the participants, and where the data will be collected.
• Indicate likely findings: After this, indicate qualitative themes, quantitative statistical results, or the mixed methods integrative findings that will likely arise in your study. At the early stages of planning a project, you will not know what these results will be, so you might have to guess as to what they might be. Indicate four to five themes, primary statistical results, or integrative mixed methods insights.
• Finish with practical implications: Finish the abstract by mentioning the practical implications of the study. State the specific audiences who will benefit from the project and why they will benefit.

1. State the research problem.
2. Review studies that have addressed the problem.
3. Indicate deficiencies in the studies.
4. Advance the significance of the study for particular audiences.
5. State the purpose statement.

2.3 Research Questions and Hypotheses

Research Questions

Qualitative Research

• Focus on exploring a single phenomenon or concept using open-ended questions (e.g., what or how).
• Start with a central question and up to 5-7 subquestions for depth and detail.
• Adapt questions to the specific qualitative method (e.g., narrative, phenomenology, ethnography).
• Allow questions to evolve during the study.

Quantitative Research

• Address relationships between variables with specific and measurable questions.
• Use directional language (e.g., affect, influence, determine) to reflect cause-and-effect or correlations.

Types of Qualitative Research Questions

• Descriptive questions
• Exploratory questions
• Experiential questions
• Comparative questions
• Process-oriented questions
• Theoretical questions

2.4 Review of the Literature

The literature review accomplishes several purposes:

• It provides a framework for establishing the importance of the study as well as a benchmark for comparing the results with other findings.
• It shares with the reader the results of other studies that are closely related to the one being undertaken.
• It relates a study to the larger, ongoing dialogue literature, in filling the gaps and extending prior studies.

Chapter 6: Researching Innovation

6.1 Innovation as an Object of Research in Education

1. The Delphi Technique

Has three rounds:

1. Participants answer a qualitative questionnaire.
2. Participants provide feedback on the responses to the questionnaire.
3. They all reach consensus on the issues raised. If consensus is not reached, additional rounds are added.

• The Delphi technique: qualitative research method used to plan programs, assess institutional needs, etc.
• Participants must be proficient in the subject matter.

2. Action Research for Innovation

This methodology is suitable for promoting innovation processes in institutions.

1. Observe: Collect and describe relevant information.
2. Analyze: Explore, interpret, and theorize the phenomenon.
3. Act: Implement a plan; if successful, finalize it. If not, restart the process.

3. Design Thinking

Is a process to define problems, empathize, and refine prototype solutions through iterations until achieving a viable result.

It has 5 stages:

1. Empathy: Understand and connect with users.
2. Definition: Specify the problem to address.
3. Ideation: Generate potential solutions.
4. Preparation: Develop proposals or prototypes.
5. Validation: Refine prototypes through iterations until achieving a viable solution.

1. Different Types of Evaluation Depending On

The Moment:

• Before the project: Assess alignment with needs and resources.
• During the project: Mid-term evaluations to track progress and adjust.
• After the project: Measure final results.

Who Evaluates:

• The teacher initiating the innovation.
• Students or recipients of the innovation.
• Management teams or colleagues.

2. What to Measure in an Innovation

• Student Learning Outcomes:
  • Alignment with the curriculum.
  • Improved mastery of content or higher percentages of satisfactory performance.
  • Increased content retention or transferability of learning to new contexts.
• Efficiency and Sustainability:
  • Creation of reusable content.
  • Efficient use of teaching time (e.g., flipped classroom models).
  • Effective resource utilization.

Chapter 5: Analysis and Conclusions

5.1 Data Analysis

How to Analyze Quantitative Results

1. Check the Results

The obvious first step is to obtain and review the results in the questionnaire. It is important to take time to read them carefully, see if there may have been an error, check that you have all the necessary answers...

2. Data Processing

Depending on the study you want to do, it is important to decide how the data will be presented: in the form of tables, graphs, a combination of both elements... Those that are predetermined by the Office FORMS can be used or they can be presented in other types of tables, depending on the needs we have.

3. Interpretation of the Results

1. They should always be done based on the objectives of the job. They must be done in the order in which the objectives appear.
2. All the information that appears in the tables or graphs should be explained. You cannot place a table or graph that will not be explained later in the paragraph.
3. They should describe:
   • The common elements in the responses: the majority have responded..., the majority think..., 3 out of 4 participants think..., 60% of the participants..., almost all..., more than half...
   • Then the most striking results should be commented: only one person answered that..., only a third of those surveyed..., only 10% of the participants...
4. While describing, an attempt will be made to explain why these results are so. They are not explanations based on personal opinions, but based on the existing scientific literature. For example: “Most of the respondents think that gamification is applicable to the classroom; This agrees with what is stated by Surname (year), which indicates that, indeed, gamification can have multiple applications in the educational context”.
5. If something does not agree with the scientific literature, it is explained anyway. For example: “It is striking to find that respondents prefer to use group work instead of cooperative work, since scientific works show the opposite, for example, Surname (year), indicates that it is the preferred methodology of 70% of the teacher".

5.2 Conclusions

They are the last section to be written and consist of several parts:

1. Summary of the main sections of the work, specifically, the theoretical framework and the results.
2. Highlight what are the novelties or innovative elements that have been contributed with the work.
3. Description of the degree of achievement of the objectives of the work (or of the hypotheses, if any).
4. Limitations of the work or elements that could not be considered.
5. Future prospecting or lines of continuity of the work.
6. If possible, questions or general elements that can be extracted after the complete reading of the work, as a culmination (or corollary).