The Early Modern Age (1453-1789): Economy, Society, Politics, and Culture

The Early Modern Age (1453-1789)

Economy

Societies began to experience:

• Increased Agricultural Production: The three-field system was maintained.
• Intensified Commercial Activity: Increased agricultural production resulted in a surplus (excess food production). Products were sold in city markets, and new trade routes appeared.
• Expansion of Craftsmanship: The domestic system was created.
• New Products were brought to Europe.

• Development of Mercantile Capitalism: An economic system in which capital belonged to private owners. Economic growth led to the development of banking.
• Providing Loans: Bankers lent money in exchange for the return of the same amount plus interest.
• New Forms of Payment: The bill of exchange was created (a document that guaranteed a banker would pay a merchant).

Society

Economic prosperity resulted in an increase in population and a reduction in epidemics. Urban and rural societies developed (defining characteristic).

Society was divided into estates:

• Privileged Estates: Nobility, clergy. A minority, but they owned most of the land. Privileges included not paying taxes and living in castles and palaces.
• Unprivileged Estates: The Third Estate. The majority of the population. They paid numerous taxes. Divided into:

Peasants: The largest group. Serfs of the feudal lord. They had to pay the lord a part of their harvest.

Bourgeoisie: City inhabitants not ruled by a feudal lord. Divided into: Upper Bourgeoisie (highly decorated urban palaces; together with city nobles, they formed the ruling class) and Petit Bourgeoisie (small merchants, the largest group in cities).

• Also, there were beggars and vagabonds who lived on charity.

The Modern State

Growth in disposable wealth and proceeds from taxes brought political consequences.

Monarchs had more resources and became more powerful, so they reformed institutions and created new ones. They adopted these measures:

• Formed powerful armies of mercenaries that subdued the nobles who confronted them. They created diplomatic corps.
• Strengthened bureaucracy (composed of officials under their control).
• Centralized power by creating new institutions to serve them. Their power increased, and special laws were reduced.
• Monarchs established a court or permanent seat. In many cases, this was the capital.

The new political organization, a result of these reforms, was the modern state.

The most powerful monarchies were the Spanish, Portuguese, French, English, and Russian.

Culture

At the beginning of the Early Modern Age, there were significant developments. Ideas spread rapidly due to the invention of the printing press.

Humanist Philosophy

Prosperity resulted in new ways of thinking. The main characteristics of Humanism were:

• Renewed interest in classical culture: Classical Greek and Roman cultures were a point of reference.
• Anthropocentrism: Human beings became the center of philosophical reflection. Humanists were Christians, but they tried to explain reality without religion.
• Optimism/Creativity: Religious beliefs that caused fear were replaced by belief in human potential.
• Desire for Knowledge: Humanists had great intellectual curiosity. They did not want to limit knowledge; they wanted to learn about everything.
• Critical Thinking: Instead of relying on traditions, great scholars, or sacred texts, they tried to explain natural phenomena by individual reflection (reason), extensive studies (research), and practical demonstrations (experimentation).
• Use of Vernacular Languages: Humanists wrote their works in the languages spoken in their countries.

Italian Renaissance

The humanist spirit created a new artistic style, the Renaissance, which originated in small Italian cities.

Artists dedicated themselves solely to creation because they were maintained by patrons. Patrons included the Medici, the Sforza, and Popes.

It was called the Renaissance due to the revival of classical Greek and Roman culture. Two main reasons for this were:

• The arrival in Italy of Greek scholars who fled Constantinople and brought classical works with them.
• The abundance of Roman remains on the Italian peninsula and the discovery of archaeological remains.

Phases of the Renaissance

• Trecento: 14th century - end of Gothic art. The first major artist was Giotto.
• Quattrocento: 15th century. Architects: Brunelleschi, Alberti. Sculptors: Ghiberti, Donatello. Painters: Masaccio, Fra Angelico, Botticelli.
• Cinquecento: 16th century. This phase includes Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, and Raphael Sanzio. Painters: Giorgione, Titian.
• Mannerism: Began around 1530 in Italy. Painters: Bronzino.