Early Medieval Society: Feudalism, Demography, and Economy

Feudalism: The Foundation of Medieval Europe

Feudalism emerged as the dominant system of social, political, and economic organization in Medieval Europe.

Political System

The political landscape was shaped by the disintegration of the Roman Empire and the decline of public law following the invasions. Large landowners assumed functions previously reserved for the state, such as coinage, tax collection, justice, and defense. After the invasions, new kingdoms organized according to the feudal scheme, forming patrimonial monarchies where the king was considered primus inter pares (first among equals). Within each territory, powerful lords exercised strict control over public administration.

Social System

Feudal law, characterized by concepts of entrustment, fidelity, and loyalty, largely replaced public law in governing social relations. This era saw a shift from citizens to subjects, vassals, and serfs, and the concept of equality before the law largely ceased to exist.

Economic System

Land ownership became the primary source of wealth and power. This included not only property rights over land (territorial lordship) but also rights over people (jurisdictional lordship). Feudal income, derived from both jurisdictional and territorial lordships, became a primary source of wealth, complementing traditional territorial income.

Demography in the Early Middle Ages

1. A significant population decline resulted from invasions, leading to depopulation and the abandonment of cities.
2. Extensive agriculture, requiring large areas of land, led to habitat dispersion and a decline in population growth capacity.
3. Population density was remarkably low, estimated at 3–6 inhabitants per square kilometer.
4. High birth rates (over 40%) compensated for significant mortality rates caused by high endemic diseases (e.g., tuberculosis, malaria, dysentery) and epidemic outbreaks (e.g., plague, smallpox).
5. The majority of the population was dispersed in defensively located hamlets and villages, or settled around villages and farms associated with castles and monasteries.

Agriculture and the Agrarian Landscape

Dominical systems (territorial manors) grouped one or more estates, which could extend their lands across several villages. They functioned as units of domain and administration, though not always as a single spatial unit.

The center of each village was typically formed by the manor or castle with its associated dependencies, such as kilns, mills, barns, and workshops.

Villages or estates were organized around a demesne (or 'reserve'), directly exploited by serfs, and peasant holdings (or 'mansi'), which were leased to settlers/tenants in exchange for rent. These tenants typically had a homestead with an attached orchard.

Barrens and forests, whether communal or lord property, were utilized to support livestock. Operating units were divided into different, separate plots or parcels.

Equipment and tools were primarily wooden, reflecting Roman technical heritage. Key tools included the Roman wooden plow (aratrum) and the wheeled iron plow (carruca).

Manufacturing and Trade

The disappearance of urban workshops meant that manufacturing (e.g., kilns, forges, blacksmiths, textile mills, fulling mills) moved to villas and monasteries, primarily for self-consumption.