Durkheim's Solidarity and Tocqueville's American Democracy

Durkheim's Division of Labor and Social Solidarity

The development of the division of labor introduces two types of solidarity:

• Mechanical Solidarity: Found in traditional societies where members share moral sentiments. When the common consciousness (CC) completely envelops a person's consciousness, their personality disappears, individuality equals zero, and they are collective beings (mechanical solidarity at its maximum).
• Organic Solidarity: Found in modern society, held together by mutual dependency between people. Individuals are different from each other; modern society is a system of difference and specialized functions.

Common Consciousness vs. Individual Consciousness

The Common Consciousness (CC) is of a very general nature. Individual Consciousness (IC) grows stronger with the room provided by the CC. Individual characteristics and activities make people become more personal, which then becomes distinctive to the rest of the world.

Spencer's View on Social Evolution

Herbert Spencer suggests that society is like an organism; it has laws of its own. The basic principle of evolution is that "a homogeneous mass of simple particles" gradually forms heterogeneous parts of a complex whole (Primitive to Ancient to Modern).

As society evolves:

• The economy becomes increasingly autonomous.
• The king and royal bureaucracy rely more on ministers.
• Society outgrows religion.
• Humans become less emotional and more rational.
• Ideas become more scientific.

Critique: Abnormal Forms of the Division of Labor

A drawback of this evolutionary view is the assumption that the modern division of labor is inherently healthy and well-integrated. Durkheim noted that political conflict and labor violence are forms of the abnormal divisions of labor, indicating that integration is not guaranteed.

Tocqueville on American Democracy and Restraints on Power

Internal Balance of Power

Tocqueville observed that the internal balance of power in the U.S. consisted of presidential power, legislative power, and the power of the courts (particularly the power of the courts). The effect of these balances meant that the government could not be too strong or too precipitous in its actions.

These balances prevent two undemocratic possibilities:

• An emotional majority (Tyranny of the Majority).
• A would-be tyrant.

Decentralization and Social Institutions

Excessive governmental power was restrained by decentralization and balances of power. While a tyranny resulting from unified central control was restrained, a local community power group control had little restraint.

Positive effects were noted for decentralized American institutions:

• Freedom of the press.
• Freedom of assembly.
• The separation of church and state, which led to an increase in strength for both church and state.

Cultural Unity and Historical Accidents

Tocqueville discussed two "accidents" that shaped America:

1. An empty continent, resulting in little fear of war (wars are a great centralizer).
2. The general equality of wealth.

American culture consisted of the same language, religion, and educational level, which led to few bases for political conflict. Historically, Republicans were associated with the free market, and Democrats were associated with the safety net of America.