Descartes' Substance & Dualism, Nietzsche's Nihilism Explained

René Descartes' Philosophy

René Descartes used 'substance' and 'matter' (or res) as synonyms. The characteristic of substance is independent existence – it does not require anything else to exist. Therefore, God is the only true substance, as all creatures depend on God for their existence.

Descartes' Concept of Substance

Descartes identified two primary types of substance:

• Infinite Substance: God's Existence

  Our ability to doubt implies imperfection. But where does the idea of perfection originate? Since it cannot be a factitious idea (created by oneself) nor an adventitious idea (derived from external experience), as neither we nor the things of this world are perfect, it must be an innate idea. This idea, placed within us by a perfect and infinite being greater than we can imagine, is God. Therefore, God exists. Descartes also provides additional evidence for the existence of God, such as the ontological argument, originally formulated by Saint Anselm.

• Finite Substances: Mind and Body

  These are substances that are independent of other finite substances, but still depend on God. There are two kinds of finite substances:

  • Res Cogitans: The Thinking Thing

    This refers to thought, encompassing all mental activity. This is the soul, which possesses the capacity for thought. It is translated as 'thinking thing' or 'mind'.

  • Res Extensa: The Extended Thing

    This refers to the body, which accounts for figure, motion, and rest. Consequently, Descartes posits a dualistic conception of humanity, where the soul and body are distinct and separable substances. For Descartes, the true essence of a human being lies in their soul.

Friedrich Nietzsche's Philosophy

Nietzsche's Concept of Nihilism

Nihilism is generally understood as a doctrine that denies or rejects fundamental realities or values. Nietzsche, however, defines nihilism specifically in terms of the will to power. When the will to power diminishes or is exhausted, it leads to passive nihilism. Nietzsche's diagnosis was that this form of nihilism was imminent.

He argued that the values propagated by Western culture are false values, representing a negation of life itself, stemming from a desire for nothingness. The collapse of these values ushers in nihilism, where the highest values become invalid. Western civilization, stripped of its foundational values, would then lose its sense of meaning. In opposition to passive nihilism, Nietzsche advocated for active nihilism.